Serapeum of Saqqara

The Apis cult dates back to very early times, possibly founded by pharaoh Menes, around 3,000 BC.[3]

The most ancient burials at the Serapeum, found in isolated tombs, date back to the reign of Amenhotep III of the Eighteenth Dynasty in the 14th century BC.

Plan of the burial vaults for the Apis

Khaemweset, working as an administrator during the reign of his father Ramesses II (1279–1213 BC) in the Nineteenth Dynasty, ordered a tunnel with side chambers – now known as the "Lesser Vaults" – to be excavated, for the burial of the Apis bulls.

A second gallery of chambers, now called the "Greater Vaults", was excavated under Psamtik I (664–610 BC) of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty and later extended to approximately 350 m in length, 5 m tall and 3 m wide during the Ptolemaic dynasty, along with a parallel service tunnel. From Amasis II to the end of the Ptolemaic dynasty the Apis-sarcophagi were made from hard stone, weighing up to 70 tonnes each.

A long avenue, flanked by 370-380 sphinxes,[4] likely was built under Nectanebo I, (379/8–361/0 BC) the founder of the Thirtieth Dynasty (the last native one).

The Serapeum was abandoned at the beginning of the Roman Period, shortly after 30 BC,[5] and swallowed by the sands. Strabo (64 BC–30 AD) noted that some of the Sphinxes of the dromos had been covered in sand by the wind.[6]

Apis continued to be buried elsewhere in the Saqqara-Abusir region until the 3th century AD.[7][8] Arnobius, around 300 AD, stated that the Egyptians penalized anyone who revealed the places in which Apis lay hidden.[9]

Stones piled on a sarcophagus

The looting of the Serapeum started at a time when hieroglyphs could still be read, as the names of the bulls were scratched out on many of the stelas. All burials, except two, were plundered and desecrated. The bull mummies were torn to pieces and stones were piled on the sarcophagi as a sign of contempt.[10][11]

The temple was discovered by Auguste Mariette,[12] who had gone to Egypt to collect Coptic-language manuscripts, but later grew interested in the remains of the Saqqara necropolis.[13]

In 1850, Mariette found the head of one sphinx sticking out of the shifting desert dunes, cleared the sand and followed the boulevard to the site.

After using explosives to clear rocks blocking the entrance to the catacomb, he excavated most of the complex.[6] He found one undisturbed burial in the Lesser Vaults, which is now at the Agricultural Museum in Cairo.

Unfortunately, Mariette left most of his notes unpublished and many of them got destroyed when the Nile flooded the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities at Boulaq in 1878.[14][15] Gaston Maspero released one volume of Le Sérapeum de Memphis based on the surviving manuscripts in 1882, a year after Mariette's death.[16]

Drawing of the "Greater Vaults" lit by candles, shortly after excavation.

The Serapeum was open to visitors shortly after excavations, in the second half of the 19th century, Yet sands quickly made all parts but the Greater Vaults inaccessible.[17]

For guests, prior to the installation of electric lamps, a series of candles on wooden stands lightly illuminated the vaults, and bright magnesium light was used from time to time. When the then Prince of Wales, Edward VII visited the Serapeum, he had luncheon with his party in one of the sarcophagi.[18]

The 1992 Cairo earthquake caused cracks to appear on the tunnel walls, and the Serapeum was closed to the public.[19] In 2001 conservation work started, stabilizing the roofs and walls, which lasted until 2012.[20][21]

The majority of the Greater Vaults is accessible to tourists nowadays.

After the living Apis had died the priests then sought out the young bull the soul of Osiris had migrated to, by identifying certain bodily marks. Herodotus reported that it needed to be black, with a three-cornered white spot on its forehead, the likeness of an eagle on its back, double tail-hairs and a knot under its tongue.[24] According to Aelian each of these marks had a specific meaning; They symbolized, for example, the stars, the shape of the crescent moon and universe, and when the Nile would rise.[25]

When the new Apis was found, the people stopped mourning. After it was kept at Nilopolis for forty days, a barge with a gilded stall brought the calf to the temple of Hephaestus at Memphis. For the next forty days only women were allowed to look at the calf, who revealed their generative parts to it. But at all other times women were forbidden in its presence.[26]

The mother-cows were said to have been made pregnant by the light of heaven or the moonlight, and could never conceive again. They were kept with the Apis at Memphis and buried in their own catacomb, the Iseum, under a kilometre (0.6 mi) north-east of the Serapeum.[27]

When an Apis died it was at least partially consumed, the remains mummified or otherwise conserved prior to interment.[28] The mummy was buried in splendor, reportedly 100 talents (2.6 tonnes of silver) were spent by the caretakers for the obsequies at the time of Diodorus.[26]

Linant-Bey calculated one of the large sarcophagi of the Greater Vaults to have a total mass of 62 tonnes (137,000 lb) at most: 37.6 tonnes (83,000 lb) for the body and 24.4 tonnes (54,000 lb) for the lid. The stone had external dimensions of 2.32 metres (7.6 ft) in height and width, and 3.85 metres (12.6 ft) in length. Internally, the rectangular hollow was 1.73 metres (5.7 ft) high, 1.46 metres (4.8 ft) wide and 3.17 metres (10.4 ft) long. The lid had a height of 89 centimetres (2.92 ft).[30]

Mariette recognized traces of rollers on the floor of the galleries, and found two wooden horizontal winches, each operated with eight levers, in one of the niches.[31] Heinrich Brugsch, visiting the Serapeum in 1853, noted that the "double-rails", on which the sarcophagi were rolled in, are still clearly preserved on the floor of the Ptolemaic service tunnel and the following passages.[32]

The floors of the burial chambers lie 2–3 metres (6.6–9.8 ft) below that of the hallway, thus the sarcophagi had to be lowered to their final positions. Mariette describes that the rooms would be filled with sand to the level of the hallway so that the sarcophagi could be moved in horizontally, then the sand would be gradually removed to gently lower them. For further protection, the ancient Egyptians cut recesses into the bedrock, about 1 metre (3.3 ft) deep, with the exact width and length of the sarcophagi. A special niche on each side allowed workers to remove the sand under the stones. Mariette found one sarcophagus that had only partially been lowered into its recess, and conducted an experiment to test the aforementioned method. He was able to lower it with perfect regularity, even though its hollow was filled with rubble.[31]

According to a stela found in the Serapeum, it took 28 working days to transport one of the sarcophagi and its lid into the burial chamber.[33]

Schematic drawing of an isolated tomb, by Auguste Mariette

• Gold mask and jewelry from tomb attributed to Khaemweset, in the Lesser Vaults
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• 
• 
• 

Two Apis died under Shoshenq V of the late 22nd Dynasty. The first one, installed in regnal year 2 of Pami, died and was buried in Shoshenq V's year 11. Its replacement in turn died and was buried in year 37. The latter's death was commemorated on several stelae, especially on the Stela of Pasenhor:[43]

This god was introduced to his father Ptah (i.e. was enthroned) in the Year 12, fourth day of month Parmouti, of King Aakheperre Shoshenq, given life. He was born in the year 11 of his majesty; he rested in his place in Tazoser (i.e. was buried) in the year 37, day 27 of month Hathor, of his majesty.
— Stela of Pasenhor[44]

When the living Apis died around 612 BC, the Serapeum was in a state of decay. King Psamtik I, renovated the temple, and started a second gallery, now known as the "Greater Vaults".[45]

Two bulls died under Amasis II, one in year 5, the other in year 23 of his reign. The sarcophagus of this latter still stands in situ in the Serapeum and is decorated with inscriptions and paneled reliefs. Its lid, now located at the main entrance, bears an inscription on the upper side.[46]

Sarcophagus for Apis bull that died in the 23rd year of Amasis II Lid for Apis-sarcophagus of Amasis II, relocated to the main entrance

Inscription on top of sarcophagus lid  [Titulary of King Amasis II] he dedicated his monument to the Living Apis, (namely) a great sarcophagus of granite. Now his Majesty found that it (a sarcophagus) had not been made in a costly stone by any king at any time. That he might be one who is given life for ever.

The life of the second is documented on a stela, which was found fixed on the masonry wall that once sealed the burial chamber:[47][48]

Stela from burial-chamber closing wall  Year 23, month Pachons, day 15, under the reign of King Amasis, who bestows life forever, the god was carried in peace to the good region of the West. His interment in the nether-world was accomplished, in the place which his Majesty had prepared — never had the like been done since early times —  after they had fulfilled for him all that is customary, in the chambers of purification; for his Majesty bore in mind what Horus had done for his father Osiris. He had a great sarcophagus of rose granite made for him, because his Majesty found that it had not been made in a costly stone by any king at any time. He caused curtains of woven stuffs to be made for the north and south side (of the sarcophagus). He had his talismans put therein, and all his ornaments of gold and costly precious stones. They were prepared more splendidly than ever before, for his Majesty had loved the living Apis better than any other king. The holiness of this god went to heaven in the year 23, month Phamenoth, day 6. His birth took place in year 5, month Tehuti, day 7; his inauguration at Memphis in the month Payni day 8. The full lifetime of this god amounted to 18 years, 6 months.'This is what was done for him by Aahmes-se-Nit, who bestows pure life forever'

A sarcophagus (Z) obstructs the original entrance way to the Greater Vaults.[49] Its lid bears an inscription dedicated by the first Persian pharaoh Cambyses II.[50]

According to Herodotus, when Cambyses II returned to Memphis, the people were celebrating. Cambyses asked the local rulers why they had not done so on his previous arrival, they explained that the Egyptians rejoiced not because of him, but a god—the Apis—that had revealed himself. Judging this to be a lie, he put them all to death. Next, the priests were summoned before him, who gave the same account. Thus he ordered the Apis to be brought. On its arrival, Cambyses drew his dagger and stabbed the calf in the stomach and smote its thigh. He laughed: "Wretched wights, are these your gods, creatures of flesh and blood that can feel weapons of iron? That is a god worthy of the Egyptians. But for you, you shall suffer for making me your laughing-stock." The priests were punished and the festival ended. The Apis died of the leg wound and was buried without Cambyses' knowledge.[24]

Depuydt argues that the aforementioned sarcophagus was that for the predecessor of the Apis Cambyses allegedly slew, giving several reasons to corroborate Herodotus' story:[22]

• Herodotus speaks of a calf, whereas the bull attested would have been quite old.
• That the people celebrated the installation of the new calf, one of the few reasons for an Apis to appear before the people.
• That the calf was buried in secrecy, thus no sarcophagus would be expected for it in the vaults.

Three Apis bulls were buried during the reign of Darius the Great. Since the entry way was essentially blocked by Cambyses' sarcophagus, a new makeshift entrance was cut closeby, that was used for the first two burials.

A stele, dedicated to the first Apis that died in year 4 of Darius, states:[51][52]

30 years later, for the burial of the third Apis, a considerably larger approach into the Greater Vaults was cut by extending the main ramp westwards beyond the old entrance stairway to a door in the bedrock, where a corridor was excavated to the south until it joined the Psamtik I gallery. A stela, now located in the Louvre, attests this expansion.[49]

Apis-Sarcophagus of Khabash (O) at the beginning of a corridor.

A corridor was dug southwards, from the bottom of Darius' new entrance ramp, perhaps intended for a new set of tombs, though it was not used. One smaller sarcophagus was placed at its entrance, dating to year 2 of Khabash.[49] Its lid was found on the floor nearby. Brugsch argued that the two had never been brought together to enclose the deceased Apis. The lid was, however, put on top of the sarcophagus during past restoration works. It bears a short inscription.[53]

Apis-Sarcophagus of Khabash

Inscription on lid of sarcophagus Year 2, month Athyr, under the Majesty of King Khabash, the friend of Apis-Osiris, of Horus 'of Kakem' (a name for the locality of the Apis tombs)

The main corridor of the Greater Vaults was extended to 203 metres (666 ft) in length, (2.3–2.8 metres (7.5–9.2 ft) m wide, and 4.75 metres (15.6 ft) high) by the Ptolemaic dynasty, along with a parallel service tunnel.[55][56]

The thirteen niches in this section correspond to the thirteen bulls attested during this period, from the one that died in year 6 of Ptolemy I Soter to the bull Octavian refused to visit.[57] All but one contain a sarcophagus, the missing one was abandoned in the service tunnel.[5]

• 
  Tunnel to the Ptolemaic Section
• 
  Niches in the Service Tunnel that once held stelae
• 
  Stelae in the Louvre from the Serapeum
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  Sarcophagus in the Greater Vaults with displaced lid
• 
  Roughly inscribed sarcophagus

Pylon of the entance ramp

Stelae continued to be made during the Ptolemies, but instead of affixing them to the walls that closed each burial chamber, they were put up on the walls of the entrance and "service shaft".

A tablet commemorates the making of the underground burial chamber for the third Apis to live under Ptolemy II, including how long each phase took:[33][58]

Abandoned sarcophagus

Lid of abandoned sarcophagus

The last bull to be interred in the Serapeum might have been the one emperor Augustus refused to visit, destined for the sarcophagus abandoned in the service tunnel.[5]

After this [Augustus] viewed the body of Alexander and actually touched it, whereupon, it is said, a piece of the nose was broken off. But he declined to view the remains of the Ptolemies, though the Alexandrians were extremely eager to show them, remarking, "I wished to see a king, not corpses." For this same reason he would not enter the presence of Apis, either, declaring that he was accustomed to worship gods, not cattle.[61]
— Cassius Dio, Roman History