Criminal psychology

Criminal psychology originates from the end of 18th century and is now viewed as the predecessor of criminology. This combines aspect of the human mind, along with psychology, and why people commit crimes. Four major aspects are combined while looking at this topic in whole, and they are philosophical, medical, legal, and biological. It is also referred to as an applied psychology, which is the different use of psychological methods of scientific psychology to solve problems. This is also seen as an academic discipline, as it is the origin of what deters the mind of a human. It also merges criminal justice with psychology.[4]

Psychologists are licensed professionals that can assess both mental and physical states. Profilers look for patterns in behaviors to link the individual(s) behind a crime. A group effort attempts to answer the most common psychological questions: If there is a risk of a sexual predator re-offending if put back in society; if an offender is competent to stand trial; whether or not an offender was sane/insane at the time of the offense.

Criminal psychologists can be used to do investigative work, like examine photographs of a crime, or conduct an interview with a suspect. They sometimes have to formulate a hypothesis, in order to assess what an offender is going to do next, after they have broken the law.[5]

The question of competency to stand trial is a question of an offender's current state of mind. This assesses the offender's ability to understand the charges against them, the possible outcomes of being convicted/acquitted of these charges and their ability to assist their attorney with their defense. The question of sanity/insanity or criminal responsibility is an assessment of the offender's state of mind at the time of the crime. This refers to their ability to understand right from wrong and what is against the law. The insanity defense is rarely used, as it is very difficult to prove. If declared insane, an offender may be committed to a secure hospital facility, potentially for much longer than they would have served in prison.[6]

Criminal psychology is also related to legal psychology and forensic psychology. and crime investigations

Criminal profiling, also known as offender profiling, is the process of linking an offender's actions at the crime scene to their most likely characteristics. This is used to help law enforcement investigators narrow down and prioritize a pool of most likely suspects. Profiling is a relatively new area of forensic psychology that during the past 20 years has developed from what used to be described as an art to a rigorous science. Part of a sub-field of forensic psychology called investigative psychology, criminal profiling has advanced substantially in methodology and grown in popularity since the conception of criminal profiling in the late 1800s.[7] However, there is a substantial lack of empirical research and effectiveness evaluations validating the practice of criminal profiling.[8][9][10]

Criminal profiling is a process now known in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as criminal investigative analysis. (see also: FBI method of profiling) Profilers, or criminal investigative analysts, are trained and experienced law enforcement officers who study every behavioral aspect and detail of an unsolved violent crime scene, in which a certain amount of psychopathology has been left at the scene. The characteristics of a good profiler are discussed. Five behavioral characteristics that can be gleaned from the crime scene are described:

1. amount of planning that went into the crime,
2. degree of control used by the offender,
3. escalation of emotion at the scene,
4. risk level of both the offender and victim, and
5. appearance of the crime scene (disorganized versus organized).

The process of interpreting the behavior observed at a crime scene is briefly discussed.[11]

There is strong evidence for racial inequality in incarceration that substantially effects the process of criminal profiling. Race continues to be a major factor in the American criminal justice system. Over the years, federal and state prisons in the United States held 475,900 inmates who were black and 436,500 who were white, giving a difference of 39,400.[12] Negative stereotypes, which often portray Blacks as born criminals, contributes heavily to the disproportionate incarceration of Blacks. A persistent stereotype in American society, it has served as a justification for the unofficial policies and practices of racial profiling by criminal justice practitioners.[13] Many modern psychologists disregard these outdated stereotypes, as race itself doesn't make an individual violent or a threat to society. The cultural, environmental and traditional concepts of communities play a major role in individual psychology, providing profilers with a potential basis for behavioral patterns learned by offenders during their upbringing.[14] They also evaluate if prison is a stable place for particular criminals, as some commit crimes due to mental health issues that have never been adequately addressed. There are many individual factors criminal psychologist will have to evaluate during their investigations, in order to piece together a thorough profile that serves both the legal requirements and provides a more humane perspective.

In 1981, Professor Lionel Haward described four ways that psychologist may perform upon being professionally involved in criminal proceedings. These four ways include:[15]

Clinical: In this situation, the psychologist is involved in assessment of an individual in order to provide a clinical judgment. The psychologist can use assessment tools, interview or psychometric tools in order to aid in their assessment. These assessments can help police and other comparable organizations to determine how to process the individual in question. For example, the psychologist helps to find out whether the individual is capable to stand trial, or whether the individual has a mental illness that relates to whether they are able to understand the proceedings.

Experimental: In this case, the task of the psychologist is to perform research in order to inform a case. This can involve executing experimental tests for the purposes of illustrating a point or providing further information to courts. This may involve false memory,[16] eyewitness credibility experiments, and more. For example, this way involves questions similar to, "how likely would a witness see an object in 100 meters?" That could be answered.

Actuarial: This role involves usage of statistics in order to inform a case. A psychologist may be asked to provide the probability of an event occurring. For example, the courts may ask how likely it is that a person will reoffend if a sentence is declined.

Advisory: Here, a psychologist may advise police about how to proceed with the investigation. For example, psychologists help to determine the best way to interview the individual, the best way to cross-examine a vulnerable or another expert witness, and how an offender will act after committing the offense.[17]

A bachelor's degree in psychology or criminal justice as well as a master's degree in a related field are needed in order to pursue a career in criminal psychology. A doctorate, either a Ph.D. or a Psy.D, typically yields higher pay and more lucrative job opportunities. In addition to degrees, a licensing exam is required by state or jurisdiction.[18] 

Criminal profilers require a master's degree or a doctorate, several years of experience and in some cases passing state examinations to become a licensed psychologist.[19]

Criminal profilers can work in various settings including offices and courtrooms and can be employed at a number of institutions. Some include local, state, or federal government, and others can be self-employed as independent consultants. As of 2021, the average amount of a criminal psychologist is $58,246 and can increase to $95,000. Several factors contribute to how much a person makes within the field, including how much time a person has worked within the field, and the city with which a person works in. Criminal psychologists who work within larger cities tend to make more than psychologists who work in lower populated cities. Those who work for hospitals or federal government tend to have a lower salary.[20] Some of the top paying states for forensic psychologists are New Hampshire, Washington, New York, Massachusetts, and California.[21]

Forensic psychology careers include: [21]

1. Correctional counselor
2. Jail supervisor[22]
3. Victim advocate
4. Jury consultant
5. Forensic social worker
6. Expert witness
7. Forensic psychology professor
8. Forensic psychology researcher
9. Forensic case manager
10. Criminal profiler
11. Forensic psychologist
12. Correctional psychologist

The effect of psychosocial factors on brain functioning and behavior is a central part of analysis for both forensic and criminal psychologists, under the category of applied psychology. For forensic psychiatry, major areas of criminal evaluations include assessing the ability of an individual to stand trial, providing an opinion on what the mental state of the individual was at the time of offense, risk management for future offenses, providing treatment to criminals including medication and psychotherapy, and being an expert witness. This process often involves psychological testing.[6] Forensic psychologists have largely similar roles to forensic psychiatrists, although are typically unable to prescribe medication.

Criminal and forensic psychologists may also consider the following factors:

1. The current presence of mental disorders
2. The level of accountability or responsibility an individual has for a crime due to mental disorders
3. Likelihood of recidivism and involved risk factors
4. Epidemiology of related mental disorders under consideration

A number of key studies of psychology especially relevant to understanding criminal psychology have been undertaken. These include:[23][24]

• Bobo doll experiment (Bandura, Ross & Ross 1961)
• The Stanford prison experiment (Philip Zimbardo 1973)
• Eyewitness study (Loftus, Palmer 1974)

• Forensic psychology
• Moral psychology
• Criminal anthropology
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Psychopathy
• Malignant narcissism
• Sadistic personality disorder

• David Canter (2008) Criminal Psychology London: Hodder Education