List of legendary monarchs of Ethiopia

Tafari Makonnen in 1923.

Charles Fernand Rey's 1927 book In the Country of the Blue Nile included a 13-page appendix with a list of Ethiopian kings written by the Prince Regent Tafari Makonnen, who later became the emperor of Ethiopia in 1930.[2] Tafari's list stretches back to 4530 BC and ends in 1779 AD, with dates following the Ethiopian Calendar.[3] Tafari's cover letter was written in the town of Addis Ababa on the 11th day of Sane, 1914 (Ethiopian Calendar), which was 19 June 1922 on the Gregorian Calendar according to Rey.[4] Rey himself was awarded Commander of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia by Tafari.[5]

The goal of Tafari's list was to showcase the immense longevity of the Ethiopian monarchy. The list does this by providing precise dates over 6,300 years and drawing upon various historical traditions from both within Ethiopia and outside of Ethiopia (see "Historicity" section below).

The king list includes 312 monarchs divided into eight dynasties:

• Tribe of Aram (4530–3244 BC) (21 monarchs)
• Tribe of Kam (2713–1985 BC) (24 monarchs)
• Agdazyan dynasty (1985–982 BC) (52 monarchs)
• Dynasty of Menelik I (982 BC–493 AD) (132 monarchs)
• Dynasty of Kaleb (493–920) (27 monarchs)
• Zagwe dynasty (920–1253) (11 monarchs)
• Solomonic dynasty (1253–1555) (26 monarchs) and its Gondarian branch (1555–1779) (18 monarchs)

In addition to the above, this is an unnumbered "Israelitish" dynasty from the time of Zagwe which did not ascend to the throne of Ethiopia.

The first four dynasties are likely legendary and take various elements from the Bible, as well as Egyptian, Nubian, Greek and Arab sources. Many of the historically verified rulers of the Agdazyan and Menelik dynasties did not rule over Ethiopia but rather over Egypt and/or Nubia. It is only from the dynasty of Kaleb onwards that the monarchs are certainly Ethiopian or Aksumite in origin.

Because of the length of the Menelik dynasty, Tafari's list breaks up the line of monarchs into three sub-sections, concerning the time periods 982 BC–9 AD, 9–306 AD and 306–493 AD.

Each monarch has their respective reign dates and number of years listed. Two columns of reign dates were used in the list. One column uses dates according to the Ethiopian calendar from 4530 BC to 1779 AD. The other column lists the "Year of the World", placing the creation of the world in 5500 BC. Other Ethiopian texts and documents have also placed a similar date for the creation of the world, such as a manuscript in which the year 7260 was equivalent to the Gregorian date 1768, placing the creation of the world at 5492 BC.[6] E. A. Wallis Budge noted that the Abyssinians/Ethiopians believed that the world was created "at the autumnal equinox 5500 years before the birth of Christ" and had previously used this as their main dating system.[7]

The king list includes a mixture of legendary and historically verifiable rulers. Most monarchs whose reigns are dated to the late 5th century AD onward are historically verified and are known to have ruled what are the modern day territories of Eritrea and Ethiopia as kings and emperors. Essentially all numbered monarchs from the 229th sovereign, Alameda, onwards are historically verified, with the possible exception of the 254th monarch Gedajan, whose name is believed by some historians to be an alternate name for king Degna Djan (though the Paris Chronicle does specifically state that Gedajan was a separate king to Degna Djan). The earliest monarchs are likely legendary, particularly one king named Hogeb who is listed as having a 100-year reign. Some rulers are of ancient Egyptian, ancient Nubian, ancient Greek and Biblical origin.

E. A. Wallis Budge was dismissive of the claims of great antiquity made by the Abyssinians, whom he described as having a "passionate desire to be considered a very ancient nation", which has been aided by the "vivid imagination of their scribes" who borrowed traditions from the Semites (such as Yamanites, Himyarites and Hebrews) and modified them to "suit [their] aspirations".[8] He noted the lack of pre-Christian king lists and believed that there was no 'kingdom' of Abyssinia/Ethiopia until the time of king Zoskales.[8] Budge did however feel that the king list "proves" that "almost all kings of Abyssinia were of Asiatic origin" and descended from "Southern or Northern Semites" before the reign of Yekuno Amlak.[9] However, native Ethiopian rule before Yekuno Amlak is evidenced by the kingdoms of D'mt and Aksum, as well as by the rule of the Zagwe dynasty.

Tafari ultimately did not reveal the sources of information for his king list in his brief cover letter, but there are clear references to Ethiopian tradition and many historically verified kings appearing in later portions of the list. Tafari stated that he had "taken a copy" of the list and sent it to Rey, writing in his cover letter that he would be happy to send more information on the history of Ethiopia if asked again.[4] This would suggest that the king list already existed in some form and that Tafari had simply copied down the information included. In any case, the list was clearly intended to be a royal chronicle of the Ethiopian monarchy presented for an English-speaking and reading audience. E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Tafari's king list was likely compiled by the "most competent of scholars and scribes in Adis Ababa", though likely also contained the "considered opinions of Government officials in Abyssinia".[10]

Two European missionaries in the 16th and 17th centuries, Pedro Páez and Manuel de Almeida, visited Ethiopia and personally saw two different king lists on which they based their respective writings on the history of Ethiopia.[11] The manuscripts likely dated to before 1620.[11] Both Páez and de Almeida stated that the Ethiopian emperor lent them books from the church of Axum containing the king lists.[11] The king lists copied down by Páez and de Almeida include the names of several kings mentioned on Tafari's list as reigning from the 7th to the 10th centuries AD.

Manuel de Almeida read a book from a church at Axum which included a short list of kings of the Zagwe dynasty. This list states that the kings Yemrehana Krestos, Lalibela and Na'akueto La'ab all reigned for exactly 40 years each, with the last king Harbai reigning for 8 years.[12] These reign lengths match those given by Tafari, suggesting he may have used a similar source for his king list. Manuel de Almeida however stated that "those who knew the history better" said that many kings were missing from this list.[12]

A text known as the "Paris Chronicle" includes a list of kings that closely matches the order of kings numbered 247 to 256 on Tafari's list with the exception of Queen Gudit who is not mentioned on the list.[13] The chronicle dates the eighteenth century.[11] Because the list matches so closely with Tafari's, it can be assumed that a similar text was used to draw up the king list.

It is likely Tafari used the Kebra Nagast for information regarding the beginnings of the Solomonic dynasty. This text is a national epic written in the 14th century. The text was supposedly originally written in Coptic then translated into Arabic and later into Ge'ez.

Many of the Egyptian and Nubian monarchs included on the list are historically verified but are not proven to have ruled the area of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, and often have reign dates that do no match dates used by archeologists. The rulers numbered 88 to 96 on the list are the High Priests of Amun who ruled Upper Egypt during the time of the Twenty-first dynasty, whose influence was limited to Lower Egypt. The order of the priests on the list is mostly confirmed by archeology, though their rule did not extend to modern day Ethiopia and Eritrea. Several other kings on the list have names that are clearly influenced by those of Egyptian pharaohs but are unproven to have existed, such as Senefrou (8), Tutimheb (53), Amen Emhat I (63), Amen Emhat II (83), Amen Hotep Zagdur (102), Aksumay Ramissu (103) and Apras (127).

Numerous Nubian rulers from the Kushite kingdom are also included on Tafari's king list. In particular, most of the pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt, who ruled over both Nubia and Egypt, are listed as part of the dynasty of Menelik I. However, the Kushite Pharaohs are not known to have ruled much further south than the area of modern-day South Sudan. Kushite monarchs from after the Twenty-Fifth dynasty of Egypt are also occasionally mentioned on this list, specifically Aktisanes, Aspelta and two kings named "Arkamen", whose name could match with a various different Kushite kings.

Additionally there are six queens on this list who are referred to as "Kandake", the Meroitic term for king's sister used by the rulers of Kush. The Ethiopian monarchy's official chronicle of dynastic succession includes these six queens.[14] Makeda, the biblical Queen of Sheba, was also referred to as "Candance" or "Queen Mother" in the Kebra Nagast.[15]

Apart from the monarchs listed above, there were also some Viceroys of Kush who ruled over Nubia during the time of the New Kingdom after Egypt conquered the Kingdom of Kerma in c. 1500 BC. Some of the names on Tafari's king list may stem from the Viceroys of Kush, including the aforementioned High Priests of Amun during the time of the Twenty-First dynasty.

The reasons for the inclusion of Egyptian and Nubian monarchs may stem from the Axumite conquest of Meroë by King Ezana in c.350 AD. It was from this point onward that the Axumites began referring to themselves as "Ethiopians", the Greco-Roman term previously used largely for Nubians.[16] Following this, the inhabitants of Axum/Ethiopia were able to claim lineage from the "Ethiopians" or "Aethiopians" mentioned in the Bible, including the Kandakes, who were actually Nubian. The inclusion of Nubian rulers suggests that the traditions of ancient Nubia were considered culturally compatible with those of Axum.[14] As some Egyptian monarchs were able to rule over Nubia, the inclusion of these monarchs in Ethiopian tradition may have also stemmed from the Axumite conquest of Meroë.

E. A. Wallis Budge theorised that one of the reasons why the name "Ethiopia" was applied to Abyssinia was because Syrian monks identified Kush and Nubia with Abyssinia when translating the Bible from Greek to Ge'ez.[17] Budge further noted that the translators of the Ethiopic Bible from the 5th and 6th centuries had identified Kush with Abyssinia for centuries and that this interpretation was accepted by the modern day people of the region.[18] He argued that it was unlikely that the "Ethiopians" mentioned in ancient Greek writings were the Abyssinians, but instead were far more likely to the Nubians of Meroë.[19]

Budge also noted that none of the Egyptian and Nubian kings appear on other known king lists from Ethiopia.[20] He believed that contemporary Ethiopian priests had been "reading a modern European History of Egypt" and had incorporated in the king list Egyptian pharaohs who had "laid Nubia and other parts of the Sudan under tribute", as well as the names of various Kushite kings and Priest kings.[21] To support his argument, he stated that while the names of Abyssian kings have meanings, the names of Egyptian kings would be meaningless if translated into the Ethiopian language.[9]

• 
  Herihor, High Priest of Amun (r. 1080-1074 BC)
• 
  Pinedjem II, High Priest of Amun (r. 990-976 BC)
• 
  Shabaka, Nubian Pharaoh of Kush and Egypt (r. 705-690 BC)
• 
  Taharqa, Nubian Pharaoh of Kush and Egypt (r. 690-664 BC)
• 
  Shanakdakheto, earliest known reigning Kandake of Kush (r. 170-150 BC)
• 
  Amanishakheto, one of several reigning women of Kush who took the title of Kandake (r. late 1st century BC)

1512 woodcut print of Cassiopeia.

The ancient Greek mythical queen of Aethiopia, Cassiopeia, is claimed as part of Ethiopia's ancient history according to Tafari's list, which lists her as the 49th monarch and the third of the Agdazyan dynasty. Her grandson Electryon also makes an appearance on this list, though oddly he is placed six centuries before Cassiopeia, as part of the Tribe of Kam.

The legendary Cretian king Minos is listed as the 66th monarch under the name "Mandes", a variation of the name used by Diodorus in his work Bibliotheca Historia,[22] though oddly he is listed as a king of Egypt rather than Crete. Diodorus' text seems to have influenced other parts of the king list, such as the 122th monarch named "Sabakon" (an alternate name for the Nubian pharaoh Shabaka, who is already mentioned earlier in the list) and the 127th monarch named "Apras", the Greek name for Egyptian pharaoh Wahibre Haaibre. A possible fourth character of Greek myth, Helen of Troy, may also appear on this list as the 76th monarch Queen Helena, however Tafari gives no information on this ruler so any connection is unconfirmed.

In addition to the above, the Egyptian king Proteus is also included on the list as part of the Agdazyan dynasty, however he only appears in Greek writings and is otherwise unattested in the Egyptian archeological record.

Painting of the Queen of Sheba from an Ethiopian Chapel in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Various Biblical figures are included in this king list. Three of Noah's descendants are named as founders of the first three dynasties; Aram, Ham and Joktan. Gether, son of Aram, and Cush, son of Ham, are both also included as kings on this list. Other Biblical figures include Nimrod and Makeba, the Queen of Sheba. According to Ethiopian tradition Makeda was an ancestor of the Solomonic dynasty and mother of Menelik I.

The Biblical events of the flood and the fall of the Tower of Babel are both included in the chronology of the king list, dated respectively to 3244 BC and 2713 BC, with the 531-year period in between listed as an interregnum where no kings reigned.

Another Biblical story included in the list is that of the Ethiopian eunuch, named Jen Daraba according to this king list, who visited Jerusalem during the reign of the 169th sovereign Queen Garsemot Kandake VI. However, the version of the story presented by Tafari has some major inaccuracies such as mistakenly stating that Philip the Apostle baptised the eunuch when it was actually Philip the Evangelist according to the Bible.

A medieval Arab text called Akhbar al-Zaman (The History of Time), dated to between 940 and 1140, may have served as partial inspiration for Tafari's king list.[23] The authorship is unknown, but may have been written by Al-Masudi based on earlier Arab, Christian and Greek sources.[23] Another possible author is Ibrahim ibh Wasif Shah who lived in the Twelfth century.[23] The text contained a list of kings of Egypt who ruled before the Great Flood and shows some similarities with the list of kings of the "Tribe of Ori or Aram" included on Tafari's list, who also ruled before the Great Flood. Several kings show similarities in names and chronological order, though not all kings on one list appear on the other. The kings included on Akhbar al-Zaman are not archeologically verified and do not appear on any ancient Egyptian king lists.

Abreha and Atsbeha

Tafari's list occasionally does not match with other Ethiopian traditions. One example is Abreha and Atsbeha, who are believed by Ethiopians to have been two brothers who brought Christianity to Ethiopia. However, Tafari lists 'Abreha Atsbeha' as a single monarch numbered 201st on his list and as a son of queen Sofya. In reality, the son of Sofya was king Ezana who was the first Christian king of Axum. Ezana is however placed much later in the list, over 150 years after the reign of Sofya. Queen Sofya ruled as a regent for her son Ezana, though Tafari considers her to be a reigning monarch in her own right, even allowing for her regency to be counted as a period of co-rule with her son.

Another example is that of king Angabo I, who Tafari places in the middle of the Agdazyan dynasty. However some Ethiopian legends claim that this king was the founder of a new dynasty.[24] In both cases the dating is given as the late 14th century BC.

E. A. Wallis Budge noted that there were differing versions of the chronological order of the Ethiopian kings, with some lists stating that a king named Aithiopis was the first to rule while other lists claim that the first king was Adam.[25] Tafari's list instead begins with Aram.

The list also has its own internal conflicting information. Tafari claims that it was during the reign of the 169th monarch, queen Garsemot Kandake VI, in the first century AD when Christianity was formally introduced to Ethiopia. However, this is in direct conflict with the story of the later queen Sofya, who ruled 249 years later.

Note: Most of these "pre-Flood" monarchs are likely legendary and are partially dawn from Biblical sources. The medieval Arab text Akhbar al-Zaman provided a similar list of pre-Flood kings of Egypt, which seemingly inspired this section of Tafari's king list.

"From the Deluge until the fall of the Tower of Babel".[29]

Note: According to the Book of Genesis, Joktan was a son of Eber and descendant of Shem and Noah. Genesis also states that Joktan was the father of Sheba,[31] who is likely the first king of his dynasty. This also explains why the Queen of Sheba is placed as the last ruler of this dynasty. Sheba is usually considered to have been the south Arabian kingdom of Saba, in an area that later became part of the Aksumite Empire. The Kebra Nagast however specifically states that Sheba was located in Ethiopia.[32] This has led to some historians arguing that Sheba may have been located in a region in Tigray and Eritrea, which was once called "Saba".[33] American historian Donald N. Levine suggested that Sheba may be linked with the historical region of Shewa, where the modern Ethopian capital Addis Ababa is located.[34] The Kebra Nagast also states that Shewa was part of the realm of Menelik I, the son of the Queen of Sheba.

Note: This is the longest reigning dynasty on Tafari's list and is divided in three sections; Those who reigned before the birth of Christ (982 BC–9 AD), those who reigned after the birth of Christ (9–306 AD) and those who were Christian themselves (306–493 AD). The historicity of most of these rulers is up for debate, with a number of monarchs of this dynasty being Nubian rather than Axumite or Ethiopian in origin.

Monarchs who reigned before the birth of Christ (991 years)

Monarchs who reigned after the birth of Christ (297 years)[52]

Christian Sovereigns who "received baptism and followed completely the law of the Gospel" (187 years)[54]

Note: John Stewart's book African States and Rulers provides alternate reign dates and succession order for these monarchs, likely based on alternate Ethiopian traditions and legends surrounding this dynasty.

Note: The majority of the following monarchs are archeologically verified, though exact dates remain unclear among historians.

Note: The following monarchs are historically verified, though exact dates remain unclear among historians.

An "Israelitish dynasty" who were "not raised to the throne" during the rule of the Zagwe dynasty[70]

"Sovereigns from Yekuno Amlak and of his posterity, all issued from the ancient dynasties which were raised to the throne".[75]

Note: The Solomonic dynasty is historically verified, but the dates included on Tafari's king list do not always match with the generally accepted dates used by historians, even when taking into account the 7-year gap between the Ethiopian calendar and the Gregorian calendar.

"Elevation to the throne of Atse (Emperor) Lebna Dengel, and the invasion of Ethiopia by Gran"[75]

Note: The following three kings are usually considered part of the Solomonic dynasty, but are separated by Tafari into a different group, likely because the conquest of three-quarters of Ethiopia by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi took place during this time.

Note: The Gordarian Line of the Solomonic dynasty is usually defined as beginning with the reign of Susenyos, however Tafari includes the 3 prior kings to Susenyos as part of this line for unknown reasons.

Note: Tafari concludes his king list with the end of the first reign of Takla Giyorgis, after which the Emperors of Ethiopia had significantly diminished power compared to before.

Pedro Páez and Manuel de Almeida saw two different manuscripts that likely dated to before 1621.[11] Both Páez and Almeida stated that they received the information from books lent to them by the Ethiopian emperor Susenyos I.[11] Notably, both lists include kings that are otherwise not mentioned on Tafari's list.

The following two lists include names of kings from before the Zagwe dynasty. Numbers in bracket state which position the kings appear on Tafari's list, while those with an asterisk do not appear at all on Tafari's list.

This king list was written in the eighteenth century.[11] Names given below are those that ruled before the Zagwe dynasty. The numbers placed next to the name state which position the king occupies on Tafari's list. The list closely matches the order of kings in Tafari's list from 247 to 256 with the exception that it does not mention Queen Gudit.

A manuscript from the Debre Libanos monastery of unknown age.[11] The following kings are those who reigned before the Zagwe dynasty.