List of large historical volcanic eruptions

This is a list of volcanoes that have had large explosive eruptions during the Holocene or in recorded history. To date, there have been no eruptions with a confirmed VEI of 8 in the Holocene, and only a few VEI-7 eruptions are thought to have occurred during this time.

List

Infrared image of Mount Tambora, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia, from Space Shuttle Endeavour. The 1815 eruption that created the caldera is the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history as well as one of the largest volcanic events in the past 10,000 years and the deadliest volcanic event in recorded history killing upwards more than 100,000 to more than 200,000 people (directly and indirectly). This event was the only VEI-7 eruption that has been directly observed in recorded history.

Color infrared view of Rinjani Volcano on the island of Lombok, May 1992. The eastern part of the island of Bali to the west is visible in the top right corner, separated from Lombok by the Lombok Strait; the Alas Strait and the western part of the island of Sumbawa are visible on the bottom left. The 1257 eruption is one of the largest volcanic eruptions in the past 10,000 years (comparable with the 1815 Tambora eruption), and this may have helped trigger the Little Ice Age. The death toll from this eruption ranges between 15,000 to 20,000 due to post-eruption famine and diseases.

Mount Paektu, April 2003. The 946 eruption of Paektu Mountain also known as the Millennium eruption or Tianchi eruption is considered one of the most powerful volcanic eruptions in China and Korea’s recorded history and one of the largest volcanic eruptions in the past 10,000 years.

VEI	Volcano	Volcanic arc/belt, subregion, or hotspot	Bulk or DRE material volume (km³)	Historical date	Tephra or eruption name	Notes
5	Puyehue-Cordón Caulle	Andean Volcanic Belt	1	2011-06-04	2011–2012 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption
5	Mount Hudson	Andean Volcanic Belt	7.6	1991-08-08
6	Mount Pinatubo[1]	Luzon Volcanic Arc	13	1991-06-15	1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
5	El Chichón[1]	Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc	2	1982-04-04	tephra unit A
5	Mount St. Helens[1]	Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.3	1980-05-18	1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens	landslide volume 0.7 mi³ (2.9 km³)
5	Mount Agung	Sunda Arc, Bali	1	1963-03-17
5	Bezymianny	Kamchatka	0.45	1955
5	Kharimkotan	Kuril Islands	1	1933
5	Quizapú	Andean Volcanic Belt		1932
5	Volcán de Colima	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	1.66	1913-01-20
6	Novarupta[1]	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	31.2	1912-06-06
5	Ksudach	Kamchatka	1.75	1907-03-28
6	Santa María[1]	Central America Volcanic Arc, Guatemala	20	1902-10-24
5	Mount Tarawera	Taupo Volcanic Zone	2	1886-06-15	1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera
6	Krakatoa[1]	Sunda Arc	26	1883-08-26	1883 eruption of Krakatoa	The eruption of Krakatoa caused the loudest sound in recorded history
5	Askja	Iceland	1.83	1875-03-28
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	2	1854-02-18
5	Cosigüina	Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	4.25	1835-01-20
5	Mount Galunggung	Sunda Arc, Java	2	1822-10-08		killed over 4,000 people
7	Mount Tambora[1]	Sunda Arc, Sumbawa	160-213	1815-04-10	1815 eruption of Mount Tambora	Caused the year without a summer, which caused crops to fail and killed over 100,000-200,000 people
6	Source unknown	Source unknown		1808/1809	Undocumented 1808 eruption[2]
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.5	1800	T (Goat Rocks)
5	Mount Westdahl	Unimak, Aleutian Arc	1	1795 CE
5	Katla	Iceland	1	1755-10-17
5	Mount Tarumae	Hokkaidō	4	1739-08-18	Ta-a
5	Katla	Iceland	1	1721-05-11
5	Mount Fuji	Honshū	1.7	1707-12-16 / 1708-2-24	Hōei eruption of Mount Fuji
5	Tangkoko	Sangihe Volcanic Arc	1	1680
5	Mount Gamkonora	Halmahera Volcanic Arc	1	1673-05-20
5	Mount Tarumae	Hokkaidō	2.8	1667-09-24	Ta-b
5	Mount Usu	Hokkaidō	2.78	1663-08-16
6	Long Island, PNG	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	> 30	1660 CE	Tibito tephra
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	1650 CE ±10	SH1
6	Mount Melibengoy,[3] Philippines	Mindanao	~13	1641 CE
5	Komagatake	Hokkaidō	2.9	1640-07-31	Ko-d	landslide volume 1.72 – 2 km³
5	Furnas	São Miguel Island, Azores	2.1	1630-09-03
5	Katla	Iceland	1	1625-09-02
6	Huaynaputina	Andes, Central Volcanic Zone	30	1600-02-19
5	Raung	Sunda Arc, Java	1	1593 CE
5	Kelud	Sunda Arc, Java	1	1586 CE
6	Billy Mitchell	Bougainville & Solomon Is.	13.5	1580 CE	BM2
5	Água de Pau	São Miguel Island, Azores	1.3	1563-06-28 / 1563-07-26
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.5	1482 CE	We (Kalama)
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	7.7	1480 CE	Wn (Kalama)
6	Bárðarbunga	Iceland		1477 CE	Veidivatnahraun
7	1452/1453 mystery eruption[1]	Vanuatu	108	1452 - 1453
6	Öræfajökull[4]	Iceland	10	1362-06-05		Then called Knappafellsjökull. Completely destroyed Litlahérað. Volcano renamed after eruption.
5	El Chichón	Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc	2.8	1360 CE ±100	tephra unit B
6	Quilotoa	Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone	21	1280 CE
5	Katla	Iceland	1	1262 CE
7	Mount Samalas	Lombok Island	130-200	1257 CE	1257 Samalas eruption;	May have triggered the Little Ice Age[5]
5	Mount Asama	Honshū	1.3	1108-08-29 / 1108-10-11	Asama-B, Tennin eruption
5	Hekla	Iceland	1.2	1104-10-15	H1 tephra
5	Lake Mashū	Hokkaidō	4.6	1080 ±100	Ma-b
5	Billy Mitchell	Bougainville & Solomon Is.	7	1030 CE	BM1
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	1030 CE ±100	SH2
6	Ceboruco	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	10.95	1005 CE ±15	Jala Pumice
7	Baekdu Mountain[1]	Balhae (China – North Korea border)	120	~946 CE	Baegdusan-Tomakomai Tephra	Millennium eruption, Caldera stage IV
5	Katla	Iceland	4.5	934-940 CE	Eldgjá eruption	over 18 km³ of basalt erupted from a fissure vents
5	Towada[6]	Honshū	6.54	915-08-17	eruption episode A
5	Tolbachik	Kamchatka	1	900 CE	Peschanie Gorky
6	Mount Churchill	eastern Alaska	50	847 CE ±1	WRAe	Formed the Pumice Terrace
5	Popocatépetl	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	1.42	823 CE	II.A2&A3 White Pumice
5	El Chichón	Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc	> 1	780 CE ±100	tephra unit D
6	Pago	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	20	710 CE ±75	Witori-Galilo tephra
5	Pago	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	6	690 CE ±90	Witori-Kimbe 4 tephra
6	Rabaul	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	24	683 CE	Rabaul Pyroclastics
6	Dakataua	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	10	653 CE	Dk
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	650 CE ±40	SH3
5	Opala	Kamchatka	3.7	610 CE ±50	Baranii Amphitheatre crater
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	600 CE
5	Mount Haruna	Honshū	1.6	537 CE ±13	Futatsudake-Ikaho eruption
6-7	Unknown source	Unknown		535 CE	Volcanic winter of 536	David Keys, Ken Wohletz, and others have postulated that a violent volcanic eruption, possibly of Krakatoa, in 535 was responsible for the global climate changes of 535–536.[7] Keys explores what he believes to be the radical and far-ranging global effects of such a putative 6th-century eruption in his book Catastrophe: An Investigation into the Origins of the Modern World. This eruption was believed to have been even more violent than Krakatoa's 1883 eruption, and also the one that created Krakatoa's original caldera, which resulted in the creation of Verlaten Island and Lang Island.[8] However, there are other explanations for the climate change, including an eruption of Ilopango in El Salvador, in Central America.
6-7	Lake Ilopango	Central America Volcanic Arc, El Salvador	84-104	430 CE	Tierra Blanca Joven eruption
5	Mount Vesuvius	Campanian volcanic arc	1.2	472-11-05	Pollena
5	Akutan	Aleutian Arc	1	340	Akutan tephra
5	Pago	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	6	310 CE ±100	Witori-Kimbe 3 tephra
6	Mount Churchill	eastern Alaska	10	245 CE ±100	WRAn
6	Ksudach	Kamchatka	18.5	240 CE ±100	KS1
7	Taupo Volcano[1]	Taupo Volcanic Zone	110	232 ± 5 CE	Hatepe eruption
5	Furnas	São Miguel Island, Azores	1.54	165 CE ±157	Tephra layer C
5	Mount Vesuvius	Campanian volcanic arc	3.25	79-10-24?	Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
6	Ambrym	Vanuatu	70	50 CE	Ambrym Pyroclastic Series
6	Apoyeque	Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	18	50 BCE
6	Okmok Caldera	Umnak, Aleutian Arc	50	76 BCE ±79	Okmok II
6	Raoul Island	Kermadec Islands	28.8	250 BCE	Fleetwood
5	Popocatépetl	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	3.2	305 BCE ±95	I.A1 Yellow Pumice
5	Mount Meager massif	Garibaldi Volcanic Belt	⩾ 1	410 BCE ±200	Bridge River eruption
5	Mount Tarumae	Hokkaidō	3.3	500 BCE	Ta-c
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.2	530 BCE	Ps/Pu (Pine Creek)
5	Mount Tongariro	Taupo Volcanic Zone	1.2	550 BCE
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	1	780 BCE	SH5
5	Yantarni Volcano	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	> 1	800 BCE ±500
5	Khodutka	Kamchatka	1.25	930 BCE ±100	KHD tephra
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	> 1	950 BCE
6	Mount Pinatubo	Luzon Volcanic Arc	12.5	1050 BCE	Maraunot eruptive period
5	Hekla	Iceland	7.5	1100 BCE ±50	H3 tephra
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	1.75	1350 BCE	Tephra layer IIAV3
6	Pago	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	30	1370 BCE ±160	Witori-Kimbe 2 tephra
6	Taupo Volcano	Taupo Volcanic Zone	17	1460 BCE	Waimihia eruption
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	≥ 3.6	1500 BCE	Tephra layer AV1
5	Etna	Campanian volcanic arc	1	1500 BCE ±50
6	Mount Aniakchak	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	50	1541 BCE ±95	Aniakchak II
7	Youngest Caldera, Santorini	South Aegean Volcanic Arc	123	1610 BCE	Minoan eruption
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	3.5	1770 BCE ±100	Ye (Smith Creek)
6	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	15.3	1860 BCE	Yn (Smith Creek)
6	Mount Hudson	Andes, Southern Volcanic Zone		1890 BCE
6	Black Peak	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	30	1900 BCE ±150
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	> 1	2000 BCE	SHsp
5	Hayes Volcano	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	8.1	2025 BCE ±250	Hayes Tephra set H
6-7	Deception Island[9]	South Shetland Islands	30-60 (DRE)	2030 BCE	Outer Coast Tuff
5	El Chichón	Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc	2	2030 BCE ±100	Unit K (SI; Espindola 2000) Unit E (Macias 1997)
6	Long Island, PNG	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	> 10	2040 BCE	biliau beds
5	Rungwe	Great Rift Valley, Tanzania	2.2	2050 BCE	Rungwe pumice
5	Nishiyama, Hachijō-jima	Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc	1.2	2050 BCE	Mitsune-7 scoria
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	> 1	2100 BCE	SHsp
5	Phlegraean Fields	Campanian volcanic arc	1.8	2150 BCE ±4000	Agnano Monte Spina
7	Paektu Mountain	Balhae (China – North Korea border)		2264 BCE?	Tianwenfeng eruption
5	Mount Dana	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	1	2293 BCE ±603	1890 BCE eruption
7	Cerro Blanco (Argentina)	Andes, Central Volcanic Zone	172	2300 BCE
5	Hekla	Iceland	5.6	2310 BCE ±20	H4 tephra
6	Mount Veniaminof	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	> 50	2304 BCE ±151	V2
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.2	2340 BCE	Yb (Smith Creek)
5	Mount Vesuvius	Campanian volcanic arc	2.0	2420 BCE ±40	Avellino eruption
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	> 1	2620 BCE	SHdv
5	Mount Galunggung	Sunda Arc, Java	1	2695 BCE ±203
5	Água de Pau	São Miguel Island, Azores	5.4	2995 BCE	Fogo A
5	Rabaul	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	2?	3081 BCE ±182	Talili Pyroclastics
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	1.5	3200 BCE ±150	Tephra layer IAv20; AV3
5	Mount Kirishima	Kyūshū	3.1	3269 BCE ±688	Mi-ike pyroclastic fall
5	Tolmachev Dol	Kamchatka	1	3366 BCE	Optr
5	Lake Numazawa[6]	Honshū	4.71	3400 BCE
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	3500 BCE
5	Água de Pau	São Miguel Island, Azores	1	3510 BCE	Pisão Formation
6	Mount Pinatubo	Luzon Volcanic Arc	12.5	3550 BCE	Crow Valley eruptive period
6	Taal Volcano	Luzon Volcanic Arc	50	3580 BCE	Taal scoria pyroclastic flow
5	Haroharo Caldera	Taupo Volcanic Zone	2.8	3580 BCE
5	Ilyinsky	Kamchatka	1.3	3594 BCE ±718	ZLT-tephra; IL-tephra
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	3650 BCE
5	Popocatépetl	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	⩾ 5	3700 BCE ±250	I.A1 Yellow Pumice
6	Fisher Caldera	Unimak, Aleutian Arc	14.3	3891 BCE ±92	Turquoise Cone
6	Pago	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	10	4000 BCE ±210	Witori-Kimbe 1 tephra
6	Masaya Volcano	Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua		4050 BCE
5	Hekla	Iceland	1	4110 BCE ±100	Hekla Ö tephra
5	Towada	Honshū	9.18	4150 BCE	eruption episode C
5	Vestmannaeyjar	Iceland	1.3	4270 BCE ±180	Saefell
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	≥ 4	4340 BCE	Tephra layer IAv12; AV4
6-7	Macauley Island	Kermadec Islands	⩽ 100	4360 BCE
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	4400 BCE
5	Lake Ikeda	Kyūshū	2.3	4450 BCE	Ikeda pumice
5	Nishiyama, Hachijō-jima	Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc	1.2	4650 BCE	Mitsune-5 scoria
6	Mount Hudson	Andes, Southern Volcanic Zone		4750 BCE
5	Kaguyak	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	3.9	4730 BCE ±430	Caldera formation
5	Komagatake	Hokkaidō	2 - 4	4850 BCE	Ko-g
5	Ksudach	Kamchatka	7.5	4900 BCE	KS2
5	Tavui	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	5.75	4946 BCE ±40	Raluan Pyroclastics
5	Hekla	Iceland	1.7	5150 BCE	H5 tephra
5	Ksudach	Kamchatka	3	5200 BCE	KS3
7	Kikai Caldera	Ryukyu Islands	> 170	5284 BCE ±69	Akahoya eruption
5	Ichinsky	Kamchatka	2.5	5400 BCE
5	Mount Kirishima	Kyūshū	1.2	5400 BCE ±250	Ushinosune ash
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	1.2	5500 BCE
6	Lake Mashū	Hokkaidō	18.6	5550 BCE	Ma-f/g/h/i/j
5	Mayor Island/Tuhua	Taupo Volcanic Zone		5560 BCE
6	Khangar	Kamchatka		5700 BCE
7	Crater Lake (as Mount Mazama)	Cascade Volcanic Arc	120	5783 BCE ±49	Mazama Tephra	Caldera formation
5-6	Crater Lake	Cascade Volcanic Arc	> 9	5900 BCE ±50	Lower Pumice, Llao Rock
6	Khangar	Kamchatka	15	5922 BCE ±50	KHG tephra
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	9	5980 BCE	Tephra layer IAv2
6	Menengai	East African Rift	70	6050 BCE
5	Haroharo Caldera	Taupo Volcanic Zone		6060 BCE
6	Mount Aniakchak	Aleutian Arc	30	6300 BCE ±1250	Aniakchak I
5	Lake Ngozi	Great Rift Valley, Tanzania	7	6300 BCE	Kitulo pumice
6	Karkar Island	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	20	6318 BCE	Wadau deposit
6	Tao-Rusyr Caldera	Onekotan, Kuril Islands	55	6348 BCE ±90
5	Kizimen	Kamchatka	4.9	6400 BCE ±50	KZII
7	Kurile Lake	Kamchatka	155	6439 BCE ±23	Ilinsky eruption
5	Mount Veniaminof	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	> 1	6550 BCE ±500	V1
6	Karymsky	Kamchatka	14.5	6600 BCE	Tephra layer KRM
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	1?	6800 BCE
5	Mount Vesuvius	Campanian volcanic arc	5.1	6940 BCE ±100	Mercato eruption
5	Makushin Volcano	Unalaska, Aleutian Arc	7.5	6953 BCE ±123
5	Mount Tarumae	Hokkaidō	1.9	7000 BCE	Ta-d
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	7150 BCE
5	Towada	Honshū	2.51	7250 BCE	eruption episode E
6	Okmok Caldera	Umnak, Aleutian Arc	75	7276 BCE ±1180	Okmok I
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 1	7300 BCE
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	7400 BCE
6	Morne Trois Pitons	Dominica, Lesser Antilles island arc	58	7441 BCE ±94	PPR3 - Link fall
6	Mount Pinatubo	Luzon Volcanic Arc	⩾10	7460 BCE	Tayawan caldera, Pasbul eruptive period
5	Lake Rotoma	Taupo Volcanic Zone		7560 BCE
5	Roundtop Volcano	Unimak, Aleutian Arc	7	7600 BCE ±500
5	Pico de Orizaba	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	> 1	7761 BCE ±191	Upper Citlaltépetl ignimbrite
6	Água de Pau	São Miguel Island, Azores	11.5	8000 BCE	Inner Caldera Formation
5	Koʻolau Range	Honolulu Volcanic Series		8000 BCE
7	Semisopochnoi Island	Aleutian Arc	120	8000 BCE	Caldera formation
5	Tolbachik	Kamchatka	1.8	8050 BCE
5	Kizimen	Kamchatka	4	8050 BCE	KZI
5	Taupo Volcano	Taupo Volcanic Zone		8130 BCE
6	Grímsvötn	Iceland	15	8230 BCE	Saksunarvatn tephra
5	Towada	Honshū	1.3	8250 BCE	eruption episode F
6	Ulleung	South Korea	28.5	8266 BCE ±39[10]	Ulleungdo-Oki tephra
6	Lvinaya Past	Kuril Islands	75	8685 BCE ±71
7	Fisher Caldera	Unimak, Aleutian Arc	142	8722 BCE ±392	Fisher Tuff	Caldera formation
5	Askja	Iceland	3.45	8880 BCE ±57	Dyngjufjöll Tephra
6	Longonot	Great Rift Valley, Kenya	50	8910 BCE
5	Mount Shasta	Cascade Volcanic Arc	> 2.4	Red Banks Pumice
5	Mount Tongariro	Taupo Volcanic Zone		9450 BCE
5	Taupo Volcano	Taupo Volcanic Zone		9460 BCE
5	Hijiori	Honshū	2.3	9550 BCE
5	Mount Tongariro	Taupo Volcanic Zone		9650 BCE

References

Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. S2CID 131663534.
South Dakota State University (December 7, 2009). "Undocumented volcano contributed to extremely cold decade from 1810-1819". ScienceDaily.
Briffa, K. R.; Jones, P. D.; Schweingruber, F. H.; Osborn, T. J. (1998-06-04). "Influence of volcanic eruptions on Northern Hemisphere summer temperature over the past 600 years". Nature. 393 (6684): 450–455. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..450B. doi:10.1038/30943. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4392636.
"About Öræfajökull".
Klemetti, Erik (September 30, 2013). "Samalas in Indonesia Identified as Source of the 1257 A.D. 'Missing' Eruption". WIRED. Archived from the original on March 30, 2014.
Wohletz, K. H. (2000). "Were the dark ages triggered by volcano-related climate changes in the 6th century". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 48 (81): F1305. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
"The eruption of Krakatoa, August 27, 1883". Commonwealth of Australia 2012, Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-18. Retrieved 5 April 2012.
Antoniades, Dermot; Giralt, Santiago; Geyer, Adelina; Álvarez-Valero, Antonio M.; Pla-Rabes, Sergi; Granados, Ignacio; Liu, Emma J.; Toro, Manuel; Smellie, John L.; Oliva, Marc (22 November 2018). "The timing and widespread effects of the largest Holocene volcanic eruption in Antarctica". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 17279. Bibcode:2018NatSR...817279A. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35460-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6250685. PMID 30467408.

References

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[Oppenheimer2003-1] Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography. 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. S2CID 131663534.

[2] South Dakota State University (December 7, 2009). "Undocumented volcano contributed to extremely cold decade from 1810-1819". ScienceDaily.

[3] Briffa, K. R.; Jones, P. D.; Schweingruber, F. H.; Osborn, T. J. (1998-06-04). "Influence of volcanic eruptions on Northern Hemisphere summer temperature over the past 600 years". Nature. 393 (6684): 450–455. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..450B. doi:10.1038/30943. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4392636.

[4] "About Öræfajökull".

[5] Klemetti, Erik (September 30, 2013). "Samalas in Indonesia Identified as Source of the 1257 A.D. 'Missing' Eruption". WIRED. Archived from the original on March 30, 2014.

[Wohletz-7] Wohletz, K. H. (2000). "Were the dark ages triggered by volcano-related climate changes in the 6th century". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 48 (81): F1305. Retrieved 21 June 2018.

[8] "The eruption of Krakatoa, August 27, 1883". Commonwealth of Australia 2012, Bureau of Meteorology. Archived from the original on 2016-03-18. Retrieved 5 April 2012.

[9] Antoniades, Dermot; Giralt, Santiago; Geyer, Adelina; Álvarez-Valero, Antonio M.; Pla-Rabes, Sergi; Granados, Ignacio; Liu, Emma J.; Toro, Manuel; Smellie, John L.; Oliva, Marc (22 November 2018). "The timing and widespread effects of the largest Holocene volcanic eruption in Antarctica". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 17279. Bibcode:2018NatSR...817279A. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35460-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6250685. PMID 30467408.

List of large historical volcanic eruptions

List

See also

References

See also

References