Mysorean invasion of Malabar

The Keladi Nayakas invaded the Kolathunadu Kingdom of northern Malabar in 1732 to recover their lost territories. Under the command of Gopalaji, 30000 Canara soldiers easily overran prince Kunhi Ambu's (Cunhi Homo) forts in northern Kolathunad. In 1732, Mysorean forces invaded the dominions of Zamorin at the invitation of the ruler of Palakkad.[7] Zamorin moved his army towards the border of his dominion and repulsed the invasion.[7]

The Nayaks of Keladi planned another attack on Kolathunad in 1737. Prince Kunhi Ambu agreed to sign a peace treaty with the Nayakas, which fixed the northern border of Kolathunad on the Madayi. The British factors of Tellicherry also signed their own treaty with the Keladi Nayakas, which guaranteed the integrity of British trading concessions in Malabar in the event of future conflicts between the Canara and Kolathunad.[8] In 1737, more border conflicts broke out between the Zamorin and Mysore. In 1745, three battles were fought between them, but the fighting seems to have been inconclusive.[7]

Hyder Ali first marched to the area in 1757 as requested by the King of Palakkad, a long-time military foe of the Zamorin of Calicut.[1] At that time, the Zamorin were fighting with the raja of Cochin. Hyder Ali, who at that time was the Faujdar of Dindigul under the Kingdom of Mysore, marched into southern Malabar with a force of 2,500 horses and 7,500 men, supported by Palghat troops. His army defeated the Calicut army and reached the Arabian Sea. His main intention was to capture the vast treasuries of the rulers of Malabar. The Malabar Coast had been famous for its foreign spice trade since ancient times. Zamorin reached a treaty with Haider Ali, in which he was required to pay twelve lakh rupees as war reparations. However, the Zamorin technically deceived Hyder Ali after the Mysore Army returned from Malabar.[9] But Hyder Ali was rewarded by Devaraja with the jaghir (regional governorship) of Bangalore.

The Calicut army failed because Hyder's troops were organised, armed and trained in the most modern fashion, whereas the Calicut army, like the other armies of the kings of Malabar, relied on feudal levies. Zamorin eventually agreed to pay ₹1,200,000 as indemnity to Hyder Ali, and Hyder Ali withdrew. The King of Calicut, despite the invasion, did not modernise his army – a neglect for which he paid nine years later.

Map showing Malabar and Cochin under Mysore

When news of Hyder Ali's conquest of Bednur reached Ali Rajah of Cannanore in 1763, he promptly asked Hyder to invade present-day Kerala and help him deal with the Zamorin of Calicut. The Muslim chieftain of Cannanore, an old rival of the neighbouring powerful Kolathiri, was an active ally of Mysore under the occupation.[10][11] Hyder Ali agreed and in 1766 marched into Malabar through Mangalore with a force of 12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and field guns. He desperately needed a port on the Arabian Sea, as his French allies were supposed to send him weapons, ammunition and horses to use against the British. Mahé, a French-controlled port, lay in the middle of Malabar. With his modern army, Hyder Ali easily defeated the petty kingdoms on the Malabar, beginning with Kolathunad.

Ali Raja seized and set fire to the palace of Kolathiri Raja. The latter escaped with his followers to the then-British settlement at Tellicherry. After the victory, Hyder Ali entered the Kingdom of Kottayam in present-day North Malabar and occupied it, with assistance from native Muslims, after some resistance by the Kottayam army.[12] The first serious resistance encountered by Hyder Ali's army was in Kadathanad, and was followed by a series of atrocities against the natives.

Thalassery fort, Thalassery

After taking Calicut in a bloody battle, Hyder Ali, with a large amount of money, marched south-east and moved towards Coimbatore through Palghat. Mysore appointed Ali Raja as military governor and Madanna (a former revenue officer) as civil governor of the newly acquired province of Malabar.[13]

Shortly afterwards, Raza Ali, Hyder Ali's lieutenant, returned to Coimbatore, and Hindu fighters hidden in the forests[13] rebelled against the Mysore authorities. They re-occupied forts and large portions of land during the monsoon season. However, by June 1766, Hyder Ali himself returned to Malabar and imposed his troops on the rebels, killing many Nair soldiers and deporting over 15,000 Nairs to Kanara. The Gazetteers state that only 200 of the 15,000 deported Nairs survived. One of the most critical battles occurred at Putiyangadi in the Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunad), where the Hindus suffered a complete defeat. The Mysore army stormed the village and re-captured it. Chaotically, hundreds of Hindu local soldiers escaped again to their forest hideouts.

Sultan Bathery derives its present name from Tipu Sultan of Mysore who used the Jain temple there as his battery (hence the name Sultan's Battery)

Mysore's response was harsh after it put down the rebellion. Many Hindu fighters were executed, and thousands of others were forcibly relocated to the Mysore highlands. To prevent another armed uprising, Hyder Ali suggested anti-Nair laws to the district, and levied additional taxes as punishment against rebellious Nair chiefs.

Eralppad, second-line successor to the throne at Calicut, continued his attacks against the Mysore forces from southern Malabar. Eventually, faced by continuous instability and rebellions, Hyder Ali agreed to cede many parts of Malabar to local Hindu rulers (as age-old customs existed in Malabar) as tributary states under the Kingdom of Mysore.[14] Kolathunad and Palakkad, the strategic entries to Malabar, remained under central rule from Mysore. Years later, Kolathunad was given to Kolathiri after negotiations.

Palakkad Fort

At the beginning of 1767, the Mysore army unsuccessfully stormed the Kingdom of Travancore from the north.

In 1767, the whole of Malabar again revolted. Mysore's army of 4,000 men were defeated by 2,000 Kottayam Nairs in Northern Malabar. Mysorean garrisons were trapped by Nair rebels, who seized the countryside and ambushed Mysore convoys and communications with great success.[15]

The following year, the East India Company under Captain Thomas Henry besieged the Sultan Bathery Fort (Avara fort) to interrupt the supply of arms to Arakkal Kingdom, with promised help from local kingdoms. But the British were eventually forced to lift their siege and retreat.

The Mysore army temporarily retreated from Malabar in 1768, successfully crushing the uprisings and building the strategic Palakkad Fort.[13] Authority over Kolathunad was now given to the Arakkal Kingdom. Skirmishes between Arakkal and the Company continued, and in 1770, the Company reclaimed Randattara.

In 1773, Mysore forces under Said Saheb marched to Malabar through the Thamarassery Pass, since the Hindu rulers had broken the earlier treaties on paying tributes.[13] The Malabar again came under direct Mysore authority.

Mysore conducted a second military operation in 1774, concentrating on the extremely ancient and unsurpassed treasures of the Main Temple in the city of Thiruvananthapuram in Travancore. Also, Travancore had given refuge to political enemies of Mysore from Malabar. Slowly, Hyder Ali moved southwards with a huge army and negotiated with the Dutch for free passage to Travancore through Dutch territories, which they refused; the Dutch owed Travancore after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel. Travancore refused to stop building the Nedumkotta fortification, which formed the northern defences of Travancore, and rumours of a proposed invasion of Travancore started circulating.

The relics of the entrance of Travancore lines

Hyder Ali asked the rulers of Cochin and Travancore to pay tribute as vassal states. Cochin was asked to pay a total of Rs. 400,000 and ten elephants, while Travancore was asked to pay Rs. 1,500,000 and thirty elephants. Cochin royals agreed to pay, and accepted Mysore's superiority. Malabar and Cochin came under Mysore rule, opening the Malabar Coast to the kings of Mysore. However the King of Travancore, under the protection of the East India Company, refused to pay the tribute.

Eventually, the Mysore army marched on Travancore from the north. The Dutch military garrison at Cranganore Fort tried to stop it. Hyder Ali asked his commander, Sardar Khan, to take an army of 10,000 to the Cochin Kingdom. In August 1776, Cochin was invaded from the north and the fort at Trichur was captured.

After the ruler of Cochin surrendered, Hyder advanced to the Nedumkotta fortifications. By this time Airoor and Chetuva Fort were ceded to Mysore. Meanwhile, the Dutch, with the help of the Travancore Nair Army, put down an attempt by Mysore forces to capture Cranganore Fort. The ruler of Cranganore, however, surrendered to Hyder Ali, but the Dutch stormed his palace and captured it in January 1778.

Remains of Cranganore Fort

After this, Hyder's forces engaged in small-scale attacks and ambushes throughout Malabar, on Travancore, British and Dutch forces as well as on Nair mutineers in northern Malabar. By 1778, Mysore had allied with the French, who were at war with the British Empire. That year, the British captured Mahé and Pondicherry. The newly appointed king of Kolathunad supported Mysore, providing crucial supplies for the war, and by March, Kolathiri had occupied Randattara. Soon, Hyder Ali removed the kings of Kadathanad and Kottayam who had supplied the British in their campaigns. However, after facing losses in Calicut, Palghat and Tirunelvely, Hyder retreated to Mysore to plan another attack on Travancore.[16][17]

The East India Company captured the French controlled port at Mahé in 1779. Mahé was of great strategic importance to Hyder Ali, who received French-supplied arms and munitions there, and Hyder not only explicitly told the British it was under his protection, he also provided troops for its defence. On 2 July 1780, Hyder Ali declared war on the East India Company, signalling the start of what was later called the Second Anglo-Mysore War (1779–1784).[18] By February 1782, Dharpattom, Nitore, Calicut, and Palakkad Fort surrendered to the British forces under Major Abington. Sardar Ali Khan, the Mysore commander, died later.[18]

During the summer of 1782, East India Company officials in Bombay sent additional troops to Tellicherry, from whence they continued operations against Mysorean holdings in the Malabar. Hyder Ali sent his elder Tipu Sultan and a strong force to counter this threat, and successfully pinned this force at Ponnani.[18]

Tired of continuous setbacks, Hyder Ali sent an army unit under Makhdoom Ali to Malabar to restrain anti-Mysore activities in the south. Meanwhile, Major Abington and Colonel Humberstone, who were in Calicut, were ordered to prevent the advance of Makhdoom Ali's army from the south. In the ensuing battle in Tiroorangadi, more than 400 Mysore soldiers, including Makhdoom Ali, were killed. Colonel Humberstone chased the Mysore army to Ponnani, with the principal aim of capturing the Palakkad Fort. Due to a thundering torrential storm, however, he retreated to Calicut then moved his unit up to Trithala near Mankeri Fort, but again retreated to Ponnani, fearing a surprise attack in the extreme weather conditions. Major Macleod subsequently reached Ponnani before taking over the command of British forces on the Malabar Coast.[18] Shortly, Tipu's forces stormed the British camp at Ponnani, but 200 of his men were killed, so he retreated. Simultaneously, a naval force under Edward Hughes reached Ponnani, but the Mysore army threatened the struggling British with a dreadful attack at any time. Tipu Sultan successfully pinned the British East India Company force there.

It was here Tipu learned of Hyder Ali's sudden death due to cancer. Tipu Sultan's precipitate departure from the scene provided some relief to the British force, but Bombay officials sent further reinforcements under General Matthews to Ponnani.[18]

The British captured Mangalore in March 1783, but Tipu, now the ruler of Mysore, recaptured Bednorem before besieging and recapturing Mangalore. At the same time, near Tanjore, Stuart's army joined with that of Colonel William Fullarton before the latter marched along the Dindigul-Dharapuram-Palakkad route and besieged Palakkad Fort. Captain Midland and Sir Thomas under Colonel Fullarton successfully captured Palakkad Fort on 14 November 1783. Company officials, having received orders from London to bring an end to the war, entered negotiations with Tipu Sultan. Pursuant to a preliminary ceasefire, Colonel Fullarton was ordered to abandon all of his recent conquests. However, due to allegations that Tipu had violated terms of the ceasefire at Mangalore, Fullarton remained at Palakkad Fort. During this time, a prince from the Zamorin dynasty emerged and the British retreated, conferring the Fort on the prince. But Tipu's forces soon marched to Palakkad fort and occupied it along with the entire southern Malabar.[18]

In December 1783, General Macleod, with fresh support from the French, captured Cannanore from the Arakkal, who were allies of Mysore in Malabar. This was followed by Beebi's failed negotiation attempt with the British.[18]

The war ended on 11 March 1784 with the Treaty of Mangalore, in which both sides agreed to restore the others' lands to the status quo ante bellum. By this treaty, the British and the Nair kings controlled the entire northern Malabar, Mysore ruled southern Malabar, and General Macleod was forced to fall back from Cannanore.[18]

After the Second Anglo-Mysore War, the Mysore ruled Malabar, despite many uprisings by the local Hindu population against the new land taxes. Tipu Sultan, to put an end to the land problems, appointed Arshad Beg Khan as Civil Governor of Malabar. Khan soon retired from service and advised Tipu to visit the region himself. In 1788, Tipu paid an official visit to Malabar and talked with the Resident Gribble about the construction of a new city near Beypore.[18]

In 1787, the Mysore captured Iruvazhinadu by murdering Kurungothu Nair, the ruler of Iruvazhinadu, and an old ally of the French.[18] The French then became the closest allies of Mysore, continuing to supply them with arms. In the meantime, Arakkal Beebi allied with the British, and Kolathiri replaced them as the ally of Mysore. Kolathiri captured Randattara and Dharmadom from the British. Later in 1789, however, the company recaptured Darmadom.

Almost all female members and many male members of royal families such as Chirakkal (Kolathiri) and Calicut (Zamorin), and chieftains' families like Punnathoor, Nilamboor, Kavalapara and Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, fled to Travancore with all the temple-wealth of their dominions, found political asylum there from Mysore, and temporarily settled down. Even after Tipu Sultan fell at Srirangapatanam, many of these families preferred to remain in Travancore. The Chirackkal were in fact a branch of the Travancore royal family itself, who had originated in Thiruvananthapuram and were based in Kannur, with a centuries-old tradition of mutual adoption of heirs.

Tipu Sultan decided to tighten his grip on his possessions in Malabar and to occupy Travancore, as he saw the control of ports and access to the routes to them as highly strategic. The kingdom of Travancore had been a target of Tipu Sultan since the end of the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Indirect attempts to take over the kingdom had failed in 1788, and Archibald Campbell, the president of Madras at the time, warned Tipu that an attack on Travancore would be treated as a declaration of war on the Company.[19] Tipu Sultan received an invitation to intervene from the ruler of Cannanore, and soon the Mysore forces were in Malabar.[13] Initially Tipu Sultan tried to induce Travancore tactically with the help of the Kingdom of Cochin, but the King of Cochin refused and allied with Travancore.[13]

Closely monitoring the conquest of Malabar and the transformation of Cochin into a tributary state, Travancore bought the Cranganore and Pallippuram forts from the Dutch. Travancore deteriorated relations by extending the Nedumkotta fortifications along the border with Mysore into territory claimed by Mysore in Cochin. Travancore, via the Nawab of Carnatic, established relations with the East India Company and expected them to retaliate for any attack on the Nedunkotta fortifications.

In 1789, Tipu sent forces to the Malabar to put down a rebellion; many rebels found political asylum in Travancore and Cochin in the wake of his advance.[20]

In late 1789, Tipu began to build up troops at Coimbatore in preparation for an assault on the Nedumkotta, the fortified line of defence built by Dharma Raja of Travancore to pursue the 1789 rebels.[18]

On 28 and 29 December 1789, Tipu Sultan attacked the Nedunkotta from the north, signalling the start of the Battle of the Nedumkotta (Travancore-Mysore War). Out of his army numbering several tens of thousands, about 14,000, along with committed local Muslim militia, marched towards the fortifications.

By 29 December, a large portion of the right flank of Nedumkotta was under the control of the Mysore army. Only a 16 feet (4.9 m)wide and 20 feet (6.1 m) deep ditch separated the Kingdom of Travancore from Mysore forces. Tipu Sultan commanded his soldiers to level up the ditch, so that his army could advance, while retreating Travancore soldiers and militiamen regrouped on the other side of the ditch. Unable to fill the ditch under heavy fire from the enemy, Tipu ordered his soldiers to march forward through a very narrow passage. This move backfired, as a group of two dozen Nair ambushed them. A few dozen Mysore soldiers were shot, and the commanding officer killed. Many more panicked and fell into the ditch and died. The reinforcements sent by the Mysore were prevented from merging with the main contingent by a contingent of the Travancore regular army. The Mysore army suffered severe casualties. Several high-ranking Mysorean officers were taken prisoner, including five Europeans.

The onset of monsoons prevented Tipu from moving further. Tipu got information that the East India Company was planning to attack his capital and retreated to defend it.[13]

In late 1790, British forces took control of the Malabar Coast. A force under Colonel Hartley gained a decisive victory in the Battle of Calicut in December, while a second under Robert Abercromby routed the Mysore at Cannanore a few days later.[21]

Battle of Calicut (1790)

Map of south India, showing Malabar under East India Company

The Battle of Calicut took place between 7 and 12 December 1790, at Thiroorangadi. Three regiments from the British East India Company, consisting of 1,500 men led by Lieutenant Colonel James Hartley with the aid of sepoys and horses provided by Travancore, decisively defeated a 9,000-man Mysore army, killing or wounding about 1,000, and taking a large number of prisoners, including the commander, Hussein Ali.

By the Treaty of Seringapatam signed in 1792, Malabar was ceded to the East India Company. The treaty resulted in a sharp curtailment of Mysore's borders to the advantage of the Mahrattas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Madras Presidency. The districts of Malabar, Salem, Bellary and Anantapur were ceded to the Madras presidency.[22]

The Sultans of Mysore changed the ancient landlord system in Malabar just like in Kingdom of Cochin and Travancore. To control the region, Tipu Sultan adopted strong measures against Nair nobles of Malabar and established a centralised administrative system. This led to the marginalization of the Nair and the subsequent rise of an affluent Muslim elite. The changes in Malabar due to the Mysore invasions were as follows:

• The flight of the local Nair chieftains and landlords to Travancore led to a redistribution of landed wealth. However, for revenue, Tipu introduced the "Jamabandi" system to collect taxes directly from peasants.
• Land was extensively surveyed and classified. Taxes were fixed considering the different types of land and crops, and for some crops taxes were reduced.
• Tipu introduced monopolies over products like pepper, coconut, tobacco, sandalwood, teak etc.[1]
• The roads developed by Tipu for military purposes helped the development of trade.[1]

• Anglo-Mysore Wars
• Pazhassi Raja
• Siege of Tellicherry
• Mysore's campaigns against the states of Malabar (1757)