English rule in Wales

Llywelyn the Last marble statue, City Hall, Cardiff.

The Battle of Hastings occurred in 1066, a pivotal point in the Norman conquest of England. By 1067 the Normans has begun building Chepstow castle and had begun an invasion of Wales. The Norman leaders spoke French and their English speaking followers colonised conquered lands in Wales including south Pembrokeshire which has historically been referred to as "Little England Beyond Wales".[1] Henry II King of England, a successive Anglo-Norman king, asked an Old Man of Pencader, Camarthenshire, whether he thought the Welsh against his raids of Wales:[2]

Modern English translation from Welsh: "Never will it be destroyed by the wrath of man, unless the wrath of God be added," replied the Old Man. "Nor do I think that any other nation than this of Wales, or any other tongue, whatever may hereafter come to pass, shall on the day of the great reckoning before the Most High Judge, answer for this corner of the earth."[3][4]

Charters of the Welsh Princes included in the Magna Carta of 1215 was the first document which included English and Welsh law, including reference to common acceptance of the lawful judgement of peers. Chapter 56: The return of lands and liberties to Welshmen if those lands and liberties had been taken by English (and vice versa) without a law-abiding judgement of their peers. Chapter 57: The return of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, the illegitimate son of Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (Llywelyn the Great) along with other Welsh hostages who were originally taken for "peace" and "good".[5][6]

Llywelyn the Last is killed

Following the uniting of Wales under the rule of the Llywelyn princes, Edward I King of England led 15,00 men to capture Wales following multiple failed attempts by English monarchs to maintain a grip on Wales prior to this. Following resistance by the Prince of Wales Llywelyn ap Gruffydd (Llywelyn the Last) and an attempt to recruit more Welsh soldiers in mid-Wales, he was killed in 1282 in Cilmeri. His brother, Dafydd ap Gruffydd continued a rebellion until 1283, when he was also killed by invading English forces.[7][8]

Erected at Westminster Abbey sometime during the reign of Edward I, thought to be an image of the King.

Following the killing of Llywelyn the Last in Cilmeri in 1282,[9] Edward sought to end Welsh independence and introduced the royal ordinance of the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284. The statute was a constitutional change causing Wales to lose its de facto independence and formed the Principality of Wales within the "Realm of England".[10][11][12] The name refers to Rhuddlan Castle in Denbighshire, where it was first promulgated on 19 March 1284.[13] The statute confirmed the annexation of Wales and introduced English common law to Wales for criminal cases, while civil cases were still dealt with under the Welsh laws of Hywel Dda.[14][11]

Owain Glyndŵr by AC Michael. Symbol of Welsh resistance against English rule.

The immediate and initial cause of Owain Glyndŵr's rebellion is likely the incursion of his land by Baron Grey of Ruthin and the late delivery of a letter requiring armed services of Glyndŵr by King Henry IV of England as well as unfair mediation of this dispute by the English king. Glyndŵr was pronounced Prince of Wales in Glyndyfrdwy on the 16th of September 1400 and with his armies, proceeded to attach English towns in north-east Wales with guerilla tactics, disappearing into the mountains. Allies of Glyndŵr, the Tudor family then captured Conwy Castle at Easter 1401 and in the same year Glyndŵr was victorious against English forces in Pumlumon. he gathered much support across Wales. King Henry led several attempted invasions of Wales but with limited success. Bad weather and the guerilla tactics of Glyndŵr created a mythical status for him, a man at one with the elements who had control over the weather. [15]

In 1402, the Parliament of England passed a set of laws called the Penal Laws against Wales 1402, which were passed to establish Welsh oppression and English dominance in Wales during the Rising of Owain Glyndŵr against English rule in Wales. Penal laws banned Welsh people from holding a senior public office, bearing arms, buying property in English towns. Penal laws were also applied to English men who married Welsh women. Public assembly was outlawed and the education of Welsh children was limited. These acts were not ended until much later with the Laws in Wales Acts of 1532 and 1542 that were introduced by Henry VIII King of England.[16][17][18]

In 1404, Glyndŵr captured Aberystwyth and Harlech castles, formed an agreement with the French and held a Senedd at Machynlleth, crowned Prince of Wales with emissaries from Scotland France and Castille in Spain. French assistance arrived in 1405 and much of Wales was in Glyndŵr's control. In 1406 Glyndŵr wrote the Pennal Letter at Pennal near Machynlleth offering Welsh allegiance to the Avignon Pope rather than the Rome Pope and seeking recognition of St David as archbishop of Wales, clerics fluent in Welsh, two Welsh universities, retention of Welsh Church revenues and that the "usurper" Henry Henry IV should be excommunicated. The French did not respond and the rebellion began to falter. Aberystwyth Castle was lost in 1408 and Harlech Castle in 1409 and Glyndŵr was forced to retreat to the Welsh mountains where he continued occasional guerilla raids. It is likely that he died in 1416 at Kentchurch at the Anglo-Welsh border at the home of his daughter Alys. Glyndŵr remains an icon of Welsh identity and nationalism from the 18th century until today.[19]

In 1470 Edward IV formed the council of Wales and the Marches. Following the defeat of Richard III in battle, the Welsh King of England Henry VII continued the use of Council and it was mostly used for judicial purposes. 1660, the council of Wales and the Marches was reconstituted but did not carry the same importance as under Henry VII for example. It was abolished in 1689 following the deposition of James II by the Dutch William III of Orange.[20][21]

Henry VIII of England introduced the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542 via the English parliament, legally integrating Wales and England. This abolished the Welsh legal system brought about by Hywel Dda, and banned the use of the Welsh language in any official role or status. The laws also defined the England-Wales border for the first time, and members representing constituencies in Wales could be elected to the English Parliament.[22] The Marcher Lordships and Principality of Wales were united, essentially ending both.[23][24][25]

Hans Holbein, the Younger, approximately 1497–1543. Portrait of Henry VIII of England.

Around 200 years later and according to Blackstone's commentaries, the Wales and Berwick Act 1746 was passed, declaring that "where England only is mentioned in any act of parliament, the same notwithstanding hath and shall be deemed to comprehend the dominion of Wales and town of Berwick upon Tweed", meaning England would henceforth be used as a term to describe England, Wales and the town of Berwick.[26]