Cultural depictions of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558), the first ruler of an empire where the sun never set,[1] has traditionally attracted considerable scholarly attention and also raises controversies among historians regarding his character, his rule and achievements (or failures) in the countries in his personal empire, as well as various social movements and wider problems associated with his reign. Historically seen as a great ruler by some or a tragic failure of a politician by others, he is generally seen by modern historians as an overall capable politician, a brave and effective military leader, although his political vision and financial management tend to be questioned.[2][3][4][5]

Equestrian Portrait of Charles V by Titian.

Commenting on the events that commemorated the 500th anniversary (in 2000) of his birth, historian C. Scott Dixon writes that, "Born in Ghent on 24 February 1500, the first son of Philip of Habsburg and Juana of Castile, Charles would live to acquire the largest empire of the age. No other sovereign in Europe reigned over so many people or ruled over so many lands. By the year 1525, Charles V could lay claim to 72 separate titles, among them 27 kingdoms. 13 duchies, 22 counties. and nine seigniories. He cast a shadow long enough to raise the concerns of the papal theologians, for here was a secular ruler who really could give living form to the medieval idea of a universal monarchy. It is no exaggeration to say that the political destiny of Europe in the sixteenth century was often in the hands of this Habsburg emperor, and it is thus little wonder that the anniversary of his birth has been commemorated in a series of public exhibitions, festivals, concerts, displays of art, learned conferences, and numerous publications."[6]

Historiography
Greater Coat of Arms of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor (1530-1556)

Charles V's reputation among historians is controversial.

In his lifetime, the emperor had tried to influence his future image in several ways. His memoirs, dictated in 1550 on his way from Cologne to Speyer, is now considered unreliable. The emperor told his son Philip II about this book that any offence would be due to honest mistakes rather than intent.[7][8] He also had several publicists, chief among them was the Grand Chancellor himself, Mercurino di Gattinara.[9]

Christian R.Kemp notes that biographical materials between 1610 and 1800 tend to be political or religious propaganda, either "mythical hero worship or litanies of hatred".[7]

The current modern standard biography is the book Karl V. of Karl Brandi (which focuses more on Germany), translated in to English by C.V.Westwood (1939) as The Emperor Charles V.[10][3][11] Álvarez's 1975 work Charles V: Elected Emperor and Hereditary Ruler, on the other hand, focuses on Spain at the expense of his other lands, but according to Maltby, is an effective supplement to Brandi's work in this way.[12] Peter Rassow's Karl V: der letzte Kaiser des Mittelalters (1957), (which is also German-centered [13]), continues with Brandi's view that Charles was a ruler with a medieval character (which is challenged by recent scholarship[14]).[15] Alfred Kohler praises Brandi's work as an extraordinary and valuable work even for modern readers, that clarifies the full severity of the conflict with France and the central importance of the European policy for the emperor, but thinks that he focuses too much on the dynastic side, the supposed peaceful intentions and the "Tu felix Austria nube" idea. Kohler remarks that Rassow makes a valuable contribution in exploring the idea of the emperor and Empire, and the question of harmonizing dynastic power and the unity of the Empire through the emperor.[16]

From a Belgian perspective, Charles de Terlinden's 1965 Charles Quint, empereur des deux mondes hails Charles V as "an illustrious pioneer of the idea of Europe [ ... ], a great European."[17] Peter Burke remarks that Charles's greatest posthumous successes are in the Low Countries, especially Belgium. Dixon does not disagree nor agree with him, but notes that the celebrations in Flanders in 2000 do strongly support Burke's point. Dixon points out some criticisms too and notes that political conditions of every era have produced some conflicting views. Dixon opines that there is not a structural difference between the Dutch and the Belgians, and Dutch historians have defended his importance in the unification process.[18]

Generally works by British and American historians have been noted as syntheses with little original interpretation, but Boone writes that some are good materials that introduce non-professionals to the matter.[19][3] A much praised work by an Anglo historian is Sir Geoffrey Elton's 1963 Reformation Europe 1517-1559, which describes Charles as having a deep sense of duty, loyal to his principles (unusual for a prince of his time), intelligent, capable in making viable a government that had to administer scattered lands and even wage wars by proxy and from a distance, but lacked "the depth of insight which might have made him a truly great king" – this problem showed itself the most in German matters.[20][21] Various modern historians attest to Charles's sense of honour and principles (although probably in a legal sense more than in a moral sense, and not in financial matters)[22][23] but points out his limited political vision.[24] James D. Tracy's Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics examines the balance between military strategy, policy and financial matters in Charles's reign. Regarding the model of monarchia universalis, "Paradoxically, it may be the greatest significance of Charles's reign for European history lies not in what he did but in what he did not do: he either failed to achieve or did not even attempt the monarchia Gattinara had dreamed of".[25] Kohler praises Tracy highly on the matter of campaigns and their financing.[5] Henry Kamen notes that Tracy "relates the emperor's military role in Spain to what he did in the rest of his dominions, and gives the best overall survey of imperial policy".[26]

Historian Rebecca Ard Boone comments on the historiography of Charles V as the following:[3]

The figure of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1500–d. 1558), looms large over a wide swath of human experience in the 16th century. His empire impacted the direction of history in the Americas, Europe, and the Middle East. The military, diplomatic, and dynastic force of his empire weighed on cultural movements that included the Reformation, Renaissance, print revolution, witch trials, global trade, and colonization. The interplay of his narrow and shortsighted vision on one side and his military courage, administrative acumen, and devotion to duty as he understood it on the other has intrigued historians for nearly five hundred years. Every generation has found him relevant, but for different reasons. By all accounts he was talented in language acquisition. He also had the energy, intellect, and desire to understand the minutia of administrative and diplomatic business. His presence on the battlefield and documented courage helped him maintain the loyalty of his subjects. In short, he seems to have been a “good enough” emperor. Although he did not maintain political or religious unity in his empire, he defended the lands he inherited and maintained them under his family's rule. His publicists devised an imperial program focused on his personal power as a ruler chosen by God to defend Christianity from internal and external forces of evil. The contemporary shift toward authoritarian rule in many countries today has given this program new relevance.

Depictions in legends and arts

References to Charles V include a large number of legends and folk tales; literary renderings of historical events connected to Charles's life and romantic adventures, his relationship to Flanders, and his abdication; and products marketed in his name.[27] The 400th anniversary of his death, celebrated in 1958 in Francoist Spain, brought together the local national catholic intelligentsia and a number of European (Catholic) conservative figures, underpinning an imperial nostalgia for Charles V's Europe and the Universitas Christiana, also propelling a peculiar brand of europeanism.[28]

Legends and anecdotes
Charles V Picking up Titian's Paintbrush by Pierre-Nolasque Bergeret
  • According to Vasari, when being painted by Titian, Charles V noticed that the painter dropped his brush. Charles picked it up for him and told him, while Titian demurred, that "Titian is worthy to be served by Caesar."[29][30]

This anecdote has inspired works such as paintings by Pietro Antonio Novelli (1729-1804) and Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury (1797–1890).[31][32]

  • A legend originating from the peasantry in Hesse tells that after a victorious battle, a rock opens and swallows Charles V and his army. The emperor sleeps inside the mountain. Every seven years, the emperor and his army issue forth in a Wild Chase which causes a storm and the neighing of horses will be heard. The spirit procession then returns to the mountain. The legend is connected to the "Barbarossa sleeping in the mountain" and other similar legends.[33]
  • The Faust legend: The image of Charles V plays a role in the development of this legend. The early versions of the legend usually involve Maximilian (Charles's paternal grandfather), Mary of Burgundy (Charles's paternal grandmother) and the humanist Johannes Trithemius (1462–1516). Trithemius supposedly conjured the spirit of the deceased Mary (in certain versions also with ancient heroes) for Maximilian. In the versions (beginning with a 1587 anonymous account) that involve Charles, the emperor wanted to see Alexander, ancient heroes and Alexander's wife (or concubine) who had a birthmark that Charles had heard about. While the early versions highlight the love and human weakness that are exploited, the latter is propaganda that portrays the emperor as ambitious and glory-hungry instead.[34][35] The Charles versions influence Marlower's Doctor Faustus, mentioned below.

Tapestries
Charles V in the Conquest of Tunis

Larry Silver notes that while Maximilian, Charles's grandfather, preferred woodcuts (as this medium was cheap) for "portable political claims", Charles V combined luxury and mobility in the form of tapestries, which were often commissioned by relatives and prominent subjects rather than the emperor himself.[36]

  • Arrival of the statue of Notre-Dame to Brussels, from the tenture of Notre-Dame du Sablon, design attributed to Bernaert van Orley, 1518, wool and silk (Cinquantenaire Museum - Brussels, Belgium) features Charles and his brother Ferdinand as litter carriers. The kneeling figure wearing a crown on the left is Philip the Fair.[37][38] Silver remarks that, "Compared with earlier Flemish tapestries, his weavings provided heightened suggestions of depth and also inserted Italianate motifs within the border and frame decorations."[39]
  • The Nassau Genealogy (ca. 1529–31, now destroyed but designs survive), commissioned by the Nassau family "pairs male and female equestrian figures as in the Jacob Cornelisz van Oostsanen woodcut cavalcade of the counts of Holland, a recent suite (1518) that culminated with Maximilian, Mary of Burgundy, Philip the Fair, and Charles V".[39]
  • The Battle of Pavia, woven in seven pieces, in the Netherlands, from designs by Bernaert van Orley, and presented to Charles V in 1531, commemorate the 1527 Battle of Pavia.[40]
  • The Conquest of Tunis, twelve-parted. circa 1550–54, was designed by Jan Vermeyen, with the help of Pieter Coecke van Aelst and woven in the workshop of Willem de Pannemaker in Brussels.[41] According to Silver, this is "the most encompassing of all tapestry cycles for Charles V" and "his vast commemoration of his updated version of the crusade against Islam, specifically against its naval forces". He also remarks, "The Conquest of Tunis surpasses even The Battle of Pavia in its maplike specificity and full documentation of the emperor's crusading Mediterranean campaign."[42]

Music
  • The papal composer Constanzo Festa composed Te Deum laudanus which was sung when Charles entered the Church of San Antonio during his 1530 coronation.[43]
  • Jacquet of Mantua composed Repleatur os meum for Charles's coronation in 1530.[44]

Charles's motto "Plus ultra" appeared as a textual motto in several musical works produced during Charles's reign. Ferer lists these works as the following: "They include two anonymous chansons, a mass entitled Missa Plus oultre by Johannes Lupi, a chanson and intabulation for two lutes by Nicolas Gombert, and a lost chanson by Costanzo Festa.[45] An anonymous setting of the motto, Plus oultre pretens parvenir, was most likely composed near the beginning of Charles's reign. Its text affirms his vision of expanding his realm and advancing the faith, as well as his resolve to establish a universal empire.[...] Plus oultre prefens parvenir is extant in VienNB 9814, a manuscript probably copied between 1519 and 1525 and part of the Alamire Netherlands court complex."

  • Cristóbal de Morales's five part mass "Missa super l'homme armé" was likely composed for the marriage between Charles and Isabella, "reflects in the original motet text the kind of strength with which Catholic Charles was arming himself against Protestants".[46]
  • The monumental motet Virgo Prudentissima, originally composed for Maximilian I and dedicated to the Virgin Mary, was rewritten by Hans Ott to be rededicated to Christ as Christus filius Dei (all Marian references were replaced) and Maximilian was replaced with his grandson, around 1537–1538.[47]
  • Carl Loewe (1796–1869) wrote four historical ballads about Charles V.[48]

Public monuments
Emperor Charles Conquers Furor (Leone Leoni, created around 1549 to 1555) shows "naked Herculean heroization" of the emperor.[49]

In his lifetime, artists usually accompany him in his expeditions. These artists tended to depict him as a Roman emperor (a "calculated feat", according to Sacheverell Sitwell) and this continued after his death. The monument in Palermo is a notable example.[50]

In the nineteenth century, as governments erected statues of famous rulers and heroes to bolster patriotic feelings, there was renewed interest in Charles V. As his physical attributes were not suitable to depict embodiment of kingship, textbooks tended to present him as embodiment of devotion to duty, despite his physical frailty and suffering. Maria Theresa selected Charles V, Charlemagne together with other Habsburg patrons of the arts like Charles VI, Rudolf I to be included in a group of monument in Vienna to glorify her reign and solidify Austria's status as the inheritor of Carolingian dynasty.[52]

Paintings and engravings

Other than Titian, whom he compared to Apelles, other notable court painters of Charles V included Bernaert van Orley and Pieter Coecke.[55][56]

Keizer Karel als kind (Emperor Charles as child, 1879) by Jan Van Beers (1852-1927)[57]

Literature
  • Sempere's La Carolea (1560) and Luis Zapata's Carlos Famoso (1566) are epics about Charles V. These works belong to the group of heroic poems about Charles, that are called the Caroliads.[68][69]
  • In De heerelycke ende vrolycke daeden van Keyser Carel den V, published by Joan de Grieck in 1674, the short stories, anecdotes, citations attributed to the emperor, and legends about his encounters with famous and ordinary people, depict a noble Christian monarch with a perfect cosmopolitan personality and a strong sense of humour. Conversely, in Charles De Coster's masterpiece Thyl Ulenspiegel (1867), after his death Charles V is consigned to Hell as punishment for the acts of the Inquisition under his rule, his punishment being that he would feel the pain of anyone tortured by the Inquisition.[70] De Coster's book also mentions the story on the spectacles in the coat of arms of Oudenaarde, the one about a paysant of Berchem in Het geuzenboek (1979) by Louis Paul Boon, while Abraham Hans (1882–1939) included both tales in De liefdesavonturen van keizer Karel in Vlaanderen.
  • Achim von Arnim's Isabella von Ägypten. Kaiser Karl des Fünften erste Jugendliebe (novella, 1812) is a story about love between Charles and the Gypsy princess Isabella, whose mission is to free her "coarse people" and lead them back to Egypt, their legendary homeland.[71] Arnim's story is connected to the imperial idea of universal rulership (of which the incarnation in Arnim's time was Napoleon) and the Virgin Astraea, associated with the Holy Roman Empire and here represented by the Gypsy princess.[72]
  • Alexander Dumas's novel El Salteador (1854), published in English under the name The brigand : a story of the time of Charles the Fifth; and, The horoscope, a romance of the reign of Francis Second. is about Charles V (here Carlos I and events in Spain in 1519).[73][74]
  • Lord Byron's Ode to Napoleon Buonaparte refers to Charles as "The Spaniard".[75]
Escutcheon of Charles V, watercolour, John Singer Sargent, 1912. Metropolitan Museum of Art

Plays

Opera
  • Fierrabras (opera) (1823) is an opera by Franz Schubert with the setting being Charles V's war against the Moors. Charles's daughter Emma is loved by Fierrabras, son of the leader of the Moors and Eginhard, a Spanish knight.[80]
  • In the third act of Giuseppe Verdi's opera Ernani (1830), the election of Charles as Holy Roman Emperor is presented. Charles (Don Carlo in the opera) prays before the tomb of Charlemagne. With the announcement that he is elected as Carlo Quinto he declares an amnesty including the eponymous bandit Ernani who had followed him there to murder him as a rival for the love of Elvira. The opera, based on the Victor Hugo play Hernani, portrays Charles as a callous and cynical adventurer whose character is transformed by the election into a responsible and clement ruler.[81]
  • In another Verdi opera, Don Carlo, the final scene implies that it is Charles V, now living the last years of his life as a hermit, who rescues his grandson, Don Carlo, from his father Philip II and the Inquisition, by taking Carlo with him to his hermitage at the monastery in Yuste.[82]
  • Ernst Krenek's opera Karl V (opus 73, 1930) examines the title character's career via flashbacks.[83]

Armour

Among the notable armourers who worked for Charles were the brothers Filippo and Francesco Negroli, Desiderius Helmschmid (1513–1579). Filippo was perhaps the first Italian armorer who constructed pseudo-antique helmets from single plates rather than combining multiple pieces as was the common practice of the time.[84]

  • A round shield carries the image of Medusa (called the Medusa shield) and a burgonet were crafted by the Negroli and presented to Charles by his brother Ferdinand after in his 1535 entry to Naples, to celebrate his Tunis victory. The burgonet opens like a Roman helmet, with its idiosyncratic form assuming the figure of the hero Hercules. Tritons and Nereids appear on the shield alluding to naval expeditions to Africa. Figures of four great Africa heroes of ancient Rome appear on the shield, as medallions: Scipio, Caesar, Augustus and Claudius. These symbols identifying Charles with ancient African victors.[85]
  • Desiderius Helmschmid made for Charles a breastplate that portrays him as Santiago Matamoros. This also seems to be an allegorical depiction of Charles' s triumph over Barbarossa in 1535.[86]

Food
  • A Flemish legend about Charles being served a beer at the village of Olen, as well as the emperor's lifelong preference of beer above wine, led to the naming of several beer varieties in his honor. The Haacht Brewery of Boortmeerbeek produces Charles Quint, while Het Anker Brewery in Mechelen produces Gouden Carolus, including a Grand Cru of the Emperor, brewed once a year on Charles V's birthday.[87][88][89][90] Grupo Cruzcampo's Legado De Yuste is connected to Charles, his Flemish origin and his last days at the monastery of Yuste.[91]
  • Carlos V is the name of a popular chocolate bar in Mexico. Its tagline is "El Rey de los Chocolates" or "The King of Chocolates" and "Carlos V, El Emperador del Chocolate" or "Charles V, the Emperor of Chocolates."[92]

Television and film

See also

Bibliography and further reading

Charles V and music

Tapestries

Visual arts

Miscellaneous

References
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