Afanasievo culture

Conventional archaeological understanding tended to date at around 2000–2500 BC. However radiocarbon gave dates as early as 3705 BC on wooden tools and 2874 BC on human remains.[8] The earliest of these dates have now been rejected, giving a date of around 3300 BC for the start of the culture.[9]

Mass graves were not usual for this culture.[10] Afanasevo cemeteries include both single and small collective burials with the deceased usually flexed on their back in a pit. The burial pits are arranged in rectangular, sometimes circular, enclosures marked by stone walls. It has been argued that the burials represent family burial plots with four or five enclosures constituting the local social group.

The Afanasevo economy included cattle, sheep, and goat. Horse remains, either wild or domestic, have also been found. The Afanasevo people became the first food-producers in the area. Tools were manufactured from stone (axes, arrowheads), bone (fish-hooks, points) and antler. Among the antler pieces are objects that have been identified as possible cheek-pieces for horses. Artistic representations of wheeled vehicles found in the area has been attributed to the Afanasevo culture. Ornaments of copper, silver and gold have also been found.[4]

At Afanasevo Gora, two strains of Yersinia pestis have been extracted from human teeth. One is dated 2909–2679 BCE; the other, 2887–2677 BCE. Both are from the same (mass) grave of seven people, and are presumed near-contemporary.[10] This strain's genes express flagellin, which triggers the human immune response; so it was not a bubonic plague.[11]

Afanasievo
culture

Indo-Aryans

Iranians

Migration of Yamnaya-related people, according to Anthony (2007),[16] 2017;[17][note 2] Narasimhan et al. (2019);[18] Nordqvist and Heyd (2020):[19]

• 3000 BC: Initial eastward migration initiating the Afanasievo culture, possibly Proto-Tocharian.
• 2900 BC: North-westward migrations carrying Corded Ware culture, transforming into Bell Beaker; according to Anthony, westward migration west of Carpatians into Hungary as Yamnaya, transforming into Bell Beaker, possibly ancestral to Indo-Celtic (disputed).
• 2700 BC: Second eastward migration starting east of Carpatian mountains as Corded Ware, transforming into Fatyanovo-Balanova (2800 BCE) -> Abashevo (2200 BCE)-> Sintashta (2100-1900 BCE)-> Andronovo (1900-1700 BCE) -> Indo-Aryans.

Allentoft et al. (2015) published a genetic study including four females from the Afanasievo culture. Two individuals carried mtDNA haplogroup J2a2a, one carried T2c1a2, and one carried U5a1a1.[1][20] The authors found that the Afanasievo were "genetically indistinguishable" from the Yamnaya culture.[1] The results indicated that the expansion of the ancestors of the Afanasievo people into the Altai was carried out through "large-scale migrations and population displacements",[1] without admixture with local populations.[21][1] The Afanasievo people were also found to be closely related to the Poltavka culture.[21] The authors conclude that the Afanasievo people were Indo-Europeans, perhaps ancestors of the Tocharians.[1]

Narasimhan et al. (2019) analyzed the remains of 24 individuals ascribed to the Afanasievo culture. Of the 14 samples of Y-DNA extracted, 10 belonged to R1b1a1a2a2, 1 to R1b1a1a2a, and 3 belonged to Q1a2. The mtDNA samples belonged to subclades of U (particularly of U5), along with T, J, H and K. The authors interpreted these results as evidence for a migration from the Pontic–Caspian steppe.[22]

Avoiding some double countings, as of 2021 there have been 18 finds of R1b, 3x Q1(b), 1x J1, and a late of C2.

A large scale genetic study from 2021 shows that the Yamnaya-related Afanasievo ancestry in southern Siberia (specifically the Minusinsk Basin and the Altai Mountains), as well as westernmost Mongolia, largely disappeared and was replaced by East Asian-related ancestry, specifically Northeast Asian Amur-related and Paleo-Siberian ancestry, by the late Bronze Age, and is absent from modern populations of the region.[23]

Because of its numerous traits attributed to the early Indo-Europeans, like metal-use, horses and wheeled vehicles, and cultural relations with Kurgan steppe cultures, the Afanasevans are believed to have been Indo-European-speaking.[4] Genetic studies have demonstrated a discontinuity between Afanasievo and the succeeding Siberian-originating Okunevo culture, as well as genetic differences between Afanasievo and the Tarim mummies.[24]

Numerous scholars have suggested that the Afanasevo culture was responsible for the introduction of metallurgy to China.[25][26]

The Afanasevo culture was succeeded by the Okunev culture, which is considered as an extension of the Paleosiberian local non-Indo-European forest culture into the region.[4] The Okunev culture nevertheless displays influences from the earlier Afanasievo culture.[1] The region was subsequently occupied by the Andronovo, Karasuk, Tagar and Tashtyk cultures, respectively.[27][28]

Allentoft and coauthors (2015) study also confirms that the Afanasevo culture was replaced by the second wave of Indo-European migrations from the Andronovo culture during late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[1][note 3] The Yamnaya and Afanasevo cultures were also found to be genetically distinct from the Andronovo culture.[1]

A study published in 2021 found specimens from Dzungaria dated 3000–2800 BCE to be descended from Afanasievo with some local admixture, and the early Tarim mummies to represent a "genetically isolated local population" of largely Ancient North Eurasian descent, with some Northeast Asian admixture.[29]

• H. P. Francfort, The Archeology of Protohistoric Central Asia and the Problems of Identifying Indo-European and Uralic-Speaking populations (review Archived 2007-03-12 at the Wayback Machine) in : Persée 2003: Archéologie de l'Asie intérieure de l'âge du bronze à l'âge du fer
• Haywood, Antohny (2 May 2012). Siberia: A Cultural History. Andrews UK Limited. ISBN 978-1908493378.
• Hollard, C. (September 1, 2014). "Strong genetic admixture in the Altai at the Middle Bronze Age revealed by uniparental and ancestry informative markers". Journal of Forensic Sciences. American Academy of Forensic Sciences. 12: 199–207. doi:10.1016/j.fsigen.2014.05.012. PMID 25016250. Retrieved January 8, 2020.
• Kozshin, P (1970). "O psaliach is afanasievskih mogil". Sovetskaya Archeologiya. 4: 189–93.
• Einführung in die Ethnologie Zentralasiens Marion Linska, Andrea Handl, Gabriele Rasuly-Paleczek (2003) (.doc version)
• Sinor, Denis (1 March 1990). The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521243041.
• Zvelebil, Marek (13 November 1986). Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Societies of Temperate Eurasia and Their Transition to Farming. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521268680.