Eskimo–Uralic languages
The Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis posits that the Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut language families belong to a common macrofamily. It is not generally accepted by linguists because the similarities can also be merely areal features, common to unrelated language families. In 1818, the Danish linguist Rasmus Rask grouped together the languages of Greenlandic and Finnish. The Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis was put forward by Knut Bergsland in 1959. It was expanded in 1998 by Michael Fortescue, an expert in Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan, in his book Language Relations across Bering Strait where he proposed the Uralo-Siberian theory, including Yukaghir.[1]
| Eskimo–Uralic | |
|---|---|
| (hypothetical) | |
| Geographic distribution | northern Eurasia and far northern North America |
| Linguistic classification | Proposed language family |
| Subdivisions | |
| Glottolog | None |
History
Comparisons between Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut languages were made early. In 1746, the Danish theologian Marcus Wøldike compared Greenlandic to Hungarian. In 1818, Rasmus Rask considered Greenlandic to be related to the Uralic languages, Finnish in particular, and presented a list of lexical correspondences (Rask also considered Uralic and Altaic to be related to each other). In 1959, Knut Bergsland published the paper The Eskimo–Uralic Hypothesis, in which he, like other authors before him, presented a number of grammatical similarities and a small number of lexical correspondences.[2] In 1962, Morris Swadesh proposed a relationship between the Eskimo–Aleut and Chukotko-Kamchatkan language families.
In 1998, Michael Fortescue presented more detailed arguments in his book, Language Relations across Bering Strait. His title evokes Morris Swadesh's 1962 article, "Linguistic relations across the Bering Strait".[3] Fortescue (2017) presents, besides new linguistic
evidence, also several genetic studies, that support a common origin of the included groups, with a suggested homeland in Northeast Asia.[4]
Evidence
Morphology
Apparently shared elements of Eskimo–Uralic morphology include the following:
| *-t | plural |
| *-k | dual |
| *m- | 1st person |
| *t- | 2nd person |
| *ka | interrogative pronoun |
| *-n | genitive case |
Proponents of the Nostratic hypothesis consider these apparent correspondences to be evidence in support of the proposed larger Nostratic family.
Lexicon
Fortescue (1998) lists 94 lexical correspondence sets with reflexes in at least three language families, and even more shared by two of the language families. Examples are *ap(p)a 'grandfather', *kað'a 'mountain' and many others.
Below are some lexical items reconstructed to Proto-Eskimo–Uralic, along with their reflexes in Proto-Uralic, Proto-Chukotko-Kamchatkan, and Proto-Eskimo–Aleut.[5]
| Proto-Eskimo–Uralic | Proto-Uralic | Proto-Eskimo–Aleut |
|---|---|---|
| *aj(aɣ)- 'push forward' | *aja- 'drive, chase' | *ajaɣ- 'push, thrust at with pole' |
| *ap(p)a 'grandfather' | *appe 'father in law' | *ap(p)a 'grandfather' |
| *el(l)ä 'not' | *elä 'not' | *-la(ɣ)- 'not' (A) |
| *pit(uɣ)- 'tie up' | *pitV- 'tie' (FU) | *pətuɣ- 'tie up' |
| *toɣə- 'take' | *toɣe- 'bring, take, give' (FU) | *teɣu- 'take' (PE) |
Regular sound correspondences
These sound correspondences with Yukaghir were suggested in Fortescue (1998):[4]
| Yukaghir | Proto-Eskimo-Aleut |
|---|---|
| l/l’ | Ø-/-l- |
| -nt | -t-/-n |
| -nc’- | -t- |
| -ŋk- | -k- |
| -mp- | -p- |
| w | Ø-/-v- |
| j | Ø-/-y- |
| -ɣ- | -ɣ-/-R- (and -k-/-q-) |
| -r- | -l/ð- |
| Uralic | EA[6][7][8] |
|---|---|
| s | Ø |
| a | sa |
| l | t |
| m | m |
| x | v |
| s | Ø |
| d | ð |
| k | ɣ |
| t | c |
| j | y/i |
| n | ŋ |
| tä | ci |
| ti | cai |
| ü | u |
- Examples of proposed regular sound correspondences[9]
Uralic *t- : Eskimo *t- (before a Uralic back vowel)
- Proto-Uralic *tolɨ- ‘come’
- Proto-Eskimo *tulaɣ- ‘to land'
- Proto-Finno-Ugric *toxi- ‘bring’
- Proto-Eskimo *təkit- ‘arrive'
- Proto-Uralic *tumti- ‘know’
- Proto-Eskimo *tucaʀ- ‘understand’
- Proto-Finno-Ugric *tålå ‘shelter’
- Proto-Eskimo *talu(-) ‘screen or partition’
Uralic *t- : Eskimo *c- (before a Uralic front vowel)
- Proto-Finno-Ugric *täwi ‘full’
- Proto-Eskimo *ciləɣ- ‘be full’
- Proto-Finno-Ugric *teki- ‘do’
- Proto-Eskimo *caɣiqə- ‘make an effort’
Uralic *ń- : Eskimo *Ø-
- Proto-Uralic *ńåxlɨ- ‘lick’
- Proto-Eskimo *aluɣ- ‘lick’
Uralic *Ø- : Eskimo *n-
- Proto-Finno-Ugric *äktä ‘cut’
- Proto-Eskimo *naɣci(t)- ‘catch on bottom’
- Proto-Finno-Ugric *uwå ‘stream’
- Proto-Eskimo *nuvaɣ ‘saliva’
Vocabulary
| Uralic | Eskimo-Aleut[8] |
|---|---|
| *ila 'under' | *at(ǝ) 'down' |
| *elä 'live' | *ǝt(ǝ) 'be' |
| *tuli 'come' | *tut 'arrive, land' |
| *kuda 'morning, dawn' | *qilaɣ 'sky' |
| *ke 'who' | *kina 'who' |
| *to 'that' | *ta 'that' |
| *kuda 'weave' | *qilaɣ 'weave' |
The meanings 'weave' and 'morning' are most likely unrelated, which means that these are instances of coincidental homonymy, which only very rarely happens by chance, which means that some kind of contact most likely happened, but exact conclusions cannot be drawn with modern information.[8]
Proto-Uralic and Proto-Eskimo-Aleut number and case markers
Proto-Uralic and Proto-Eskimo-Aleut number and case markers:[7]
| Proto-Uralic | Proto-Eskimo-Aleut | |
|---|---|---|
| nom./absolutive sing. | Ø | Ø |
| dual | *-kə | *k |
| plural | *-t | *-t |
| locative | *-(kə)na | *-ni |
| accusative sing | *-m | – |
| plural accusative | *-j/i | *-(ŋ)i |
| ablative | *-(kə)tə | *-kənc |
| dative/lative | *-kə/-ŋ | *-ŋun |
Possessive suffixes
Possessive suffixes:[11]
| Pronoun | Samoyedic | Eskimo-Aleut |
|---|---|---|
| 1sg | *mǝ | *m(ka) |
| 2sg | *tǝ | *t |
| 3sg | *sa | *sa |
| 1pl | *mat | *mǝt |
| 2pl | *tat | *tǝt |
| 3pl | *iton | *sat |
Nenets accusative and Eskimo relative possessive affixes[7]
| 1sg | 2sg | 4sg | 1pl | 2pl | 4pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ma | vət/mət | mi | mta | vci/mci | məŋ |
| sg1 | 2sg | 3sg | 1pl | 2pl | 3pl |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| m'i/mə | mtə | mtab | waq/mat | mtaq/mtat | mtoh/mton |
Proto-language
A few potential lexical cognates between Proto-Uralic and Eskimo–Aleut are pointed out in Aikio (2019: 53–54).[12] These are:
| Proto-Uralic | Proto-Eskimo |
|---|---|
| *ila- ‘place under or below’ | *at(ǝ)- ‘down’; *alaq ‘sole’ |
| *elä- ‘live’ | *ǝt(ǝ)- ‘be’ |
| *tuli- ‘come’ | *tut- ‘arrive, land’; *tulaɣ- |
| *kuda ‘morning, dawn’ | *qilaɣ- ‘sky’ |
| *kuda- ‘weave’ | *qilaɣ- ‘knit, weave’ |
A regular sound correspondence with Uralic *-l- and Proto-Eskimo-Aleut *-t can be seen.[12]
The words "morning" and "weave" appear to be completely unrelated, which means there is an instance of coincidental homonymy, which very rarely happens by accident. Aikio thus stated that it's very likely there is some connection between the two families, but exact conclusions can't be drawn.[12]
Proto-Eskimo–Uralic lexical reconstructions by Michael Fortescue (2011) are:[13]: 152–159
Proto-Eskimo–Uralic Meaning *aj(aɣ)- push forward *al(a)/*ïl(a) below *am(u)- scoop up *an’a older female relative *aŋə opening *ap(p)a/*ïp(p)ï grandfather *äk(k)ä male relative (of father) *än(ə)-/*an(əɣ)- breathe *ciɣ(uɣ)/*cuɣ(uɣ) sand *el(ä)- be, exist *el(l)ä not *emä mother *ilu- move *imə(ɣ)- suck (breast) *jav(a) way over there, behind *jeləɣ- burn *joŋk(əɣ)- nose, tip *jutə(ɣ)- go (in)to *ka/*ko what *kað’a mountain *kanə- go off *kan(iɣ) cold, winter *kälə- wade across *käl(uɣ)- lace up *käm(əɣ)- hard, strong *käm(əɣ) footwear *keðe(ɣ) warmth, summer *kerə/*korə skin *ki who *kiɣ(aɣ)- perforate *koj(ra) male animal *kuð’(ə)/*kul’(ə) above, cover *kule- make sound *kumə- flow *kunta fellow(s), tribe *kurə(ɣ)- tie *le- become *lepa-/*lempa- flap *lep(p)ə oar *lup(sa) liquid *mal(iɣ)/*mïl(iɣ) wave *mäkə- go up *mäl(kə) chest *me here, this *menə- go *mi what *muɣə- roam *na/*nä this *naj(aɣ) girl *nimə name, call *n’ar(u) skin with hair removed *n’ik(a)- bend down *n’om(əɣ)- squeeze, roll up *o(w)- this, that *oj(wa) head, neck *ol(u) cheek, jaw *paŋkiɣ- grasp *pat’k(ə)- penetrate *päŋə top *pejə(ɣ)-/*pojə(ɣ)- cook, steam *pel(ju) leaf or ear *pel(aɣ)- cut up, flense *pit(uɣ)- tie up *poŋkə hillock *pura- go in *puwə-/*puɣə- swell *sac’(c’)a(ɣ)- paternal aunt *saɣə- come, go *sarə- flow down or out *seɣə- eat *soŋə- get into/*onto s.th. *sula- thaw *s’akə-/*s’äkə- freeze *s’ap(p)ə- hack *s’äŋkə- break *s’ep(u) neck *s’erä surroundings, nature *s’om(eɣ)- worry, think *s’up(p)ə- cut or stab *ta that *tap(p)a(ɣ)- strike *teŋ(ä)- fly up *toɣə- take *tuðka tip *tuɣlï/*tiluɣ wing, feather *tup(əɣ)- cover *t’ant’ə-/*t’unt’ə- step *t’ono/*t’eno back *uɣ(ə)-/*uj(ə)- cook over fire *wejə- flow *wel(ja) thing or person next to *wen(i)- stretch skin out to dry *wolə(ɣ) knife, cut
Urheimat
Fortescue argues that the Eskimo–Uralic proto-language (or a complex of related proto-languages) may have been spoken by Mesolithic hunting and fishing people in south-central Siberia (roughly, from the upper Yenisei river to Lake Baikal) between 8000 and 6000 BC, and that the proto-languages of the derived families may have been carried northward out of this homeland in several successive waves down to about 4000 BC, leaving the Samoyedic branch of Uralic in occupation of the Urheimat thereafter.
Relationships
Some or all of the Eskimo–Uralic families have been included in more extensive groupings of languages, most notably the Eurasiatic languages. Fortescue's hypothesis does not oppose or exclude these various proposals. Although Eurasiatic includes both Eskimo–Uralic and Uralic, proponents of Eurasiatic consider that the relationship between them is remote. In particular, Ualic is most closely related to Indo-European, whereas Eskimo–Aleut is most closely related to Chukotko-Kamchatkan and Altaic (or some part of Altaic).[14]
The linguist Frederik Kortlandt (2006:1) asserts that Indo-Uralic (a proposed language family consisting of Uralic and Indo-European) is itself a branch of Eskimo–Uralic and that, furthermore, the Nivkh language also belongs to Eskimo–Uralic. This would make Eskimo–Uralic the proto-language of a much vaster language family.[15] Kortlandt (2006:3) considers that Eskimo–Uralic and Altaic (defined by him as consisting of Turkic, Mongolian, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese) may be coordinate branches of the Eurasiatic language family proposed by Joseph Greenberg.[16]
Related language family proposals
See also
References
- Fortescue, Michael (1998). Language Relations across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence. London and New York: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-70330-3.
- Bergsland, Knut (1959). "The Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis". Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. 61: 1–29.
- Swadesh, Morris (1962). "Linguistic relations across the Bering Strait". American Anthropologist. 64 (6): 1262–1291. doi:10.1525/aa.1962.64.6.02a00090.
- "Correlating Palaeo-Siberian languages and populations: recent advances in the Uralo-Siberian hypothesis". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2019-03-22.
- Fortescue 1998:152–158.
- Caveney, Geoffrey. "Uralic-Eskimo initial, first vowel, and medial consonant correspondences with 100 lexical examples".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308045130_How_the_accusative_became_the_relative_A_Samoyedic_key_to_the_Eskimo-Uralic_relationship
- Kloekhorst, Alwin; Pronk, Tijmen (2019-09-25), "Introduction: Reconstructing Proto-Indo-Anatolian and Proto-Indo-Uralic", The Precursors of Proto-Indo-European, Brill | Rodopi, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1163/9789004409354_002, ISBN 978-90-04-40935-4
- Caveney, Geoffrey. Uralic-Eskimo initial, first vowel, and medial consonant correspondences with 100 lexical examples.
- http://www.elisanet.fi/alkupera/UralicYukaghirWordlist.pdf
- Bonnerjea, René (January 1978). "A Comparison between Eskimo-Aleut and Uralo-Altaic Demonstrative Elements, Numerals, and Other Related Semantic Problems". International Journal of American Linguistics. 44 (1): 40–55. doi:10.1086/465517. ISSN 0020-7071. S2CID 145083556.
- Aikio, Ante (2019). "Proto-Uralic". In Bakró-Nagy, Marianne; Laakso, Johanna; Skribnik, Elena (eds.). Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
- Fortescue, Michael (2011). "The relationship of Nivkh to Chukotko-Kamchatkan revisited". Lingua. 121 (8): 1359–1376. doi:10.1016/j.lingua.2011.03.001.
I would no longer wish to relate CK directly to [Uralo-Siberian], although I believe that some of the lexical evidence [...] will hold up in terms of borrowing/diffusion.
- Pagel, M.; Atkinson, Q. D.; S. Calude, A.; Meade, A. (6 May 2013). "Ultraconserved words point to deep language ancestry across Eurasia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (21): 8471–8476. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.8471P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1218726110. PMC 3666749. PMID 23650390.
- Kortlandt, Frederik. 2006. "Indo-Uralic and Altaic"
- Greenberg, Joseph H (2000). "Review of Michael Fortescue, Language Relations across Bering Strait: Reappraising the Archaeological and Linguistic Evidence.". Review of Archaeology. 21 (2): 23–24.
- Bergsland, Knut (1979). "The comparison of Eskimo-Aleut and Uralic". Fenno-Ugrica Suecana. 2: 7–18.
- Georg, Stefan; Seefloth, Uwe (2020). "Uralo-Eskimo?". Academia.edu. San Francisco, California: Academia, Inc.
- Seefloth, Uwe (2000). "Die Entstehung polypersonaler Paradigmen im Uralo-Sibirischen". Zentralasiatische Studien. 30: 163–191.
- Künnap, A. 1999. Indo-European-Uralic-Siberian Linguistic and Cultural Contacts. Tartu, Estonia: University of Tartu, Division of Uralic Languages.