Canadian Psychological Association
The Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) is the primary organization representing psychologists throughout Canada. It was organized in 1939 and incorporated under the Canada Corporations Act, Part II, in May 1950.
![]() Logo of the CPA | |
Formation | 1939 |
---|---|
Headquarters | 141 Laurier Avenue W Ottawa, Ontario, Canada |
Membership | Over 7,000 members and affiliates |
Official language | English, French |
2021-2023 President | Dr. Ada Sinacore[1] |
CEO | Dr. Karen R. Cohen[1] |
Website | cpa |
Its objectives are to improve the health and welfare of all Canadians; to promote excellence and innovation in psychological research, education, and practice; to promote the advancement, development, dissemination, and application of psychological knowledge; and to provide high-quality services to members.[2]
History
The CPA was founded in a University of Ottawa psychology lab in 1938,[3] although it was not formally organized until 1939.[4] Initially, the CPA's purpose was to help with Canada's contribution to World War II; indeed, the CPA was heavily involved with test construction for the Department of National Defence.[4]
Healthcare Ethics and Military Work
Contradictions between healthcare ethics and military work have been documented in historical analyses of German psychological associations supporting the Holocaust and American Psychological Association (APA) involvement in the 1991 Gulf War.[5]
Healthcare professionals "are faced with special dilemmas because of the obligation to support their government and national defense, while traditionally maintaining the Hippocratic Oath".[6] Just-war ethics define a list of criteria to justify violence and killing as a last resort. Although CPA had a lengthy Code of Ethics based on medical ethics, in 1992 it published a major article on military and weapons work in its quarterly newspaper.[7] This detailed policy provided official support for CPA members to be involved in activities including warfare and weapons research. It stated that Principle 1: Respect for the Dignity of Persons in the code (the first, and highest-priority principle) could actually be used as a means-end justification for violence and killing:
"There may be circumstances in which the possibility of—serious detrimental consequences to themselves or others—might disallow some aspects of the rights to privacy, self-determination, and personal liberty... As such, principle 1 can be seen to be consistent with the possibility of a just-war position."[7]
But a volume on "Professions and War" at the Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions questioned using Principle 1: Respect for the Dignity of Persons to justify killing them: "Unfortunately, while this conclusion may be an attempt to maintain the status quo and protect the military funding of CPA members, it is seriously flawed from the points of view of logic and ethics. There is nothing in this passage about military work, and the title refers to the dignity of persons, not to killing them".[8] It also required selective mis-quoting and wording omissions from CPA's own code of ethics: "Although the conclusion does not follow and flies in the face of established standards for health care professionals, it is also based on a misrepresentation of the CPA code. The ethics committee deleted two sentences from the passage it quoted to justify its position... Despite numerous requests for clarification or correction however, CPA and its ethics committee have never offered any retraction or explanation for the omission of these key phrases."[8]
In contrast, in the wake of psychologists designing and participating in torture at locations including Guantanamo Bay detention camp,[9] the code of ethics for American psychologists was eventually updated to prevent exactly this kind of politicized interpretation. In 2010, APA's Council of Representatives voted to amend their Code of Ethics "to make clear that its standards can never be interpreted to justify or defend violating human rights."[10] Similarly, when health care and medical personnel from the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) are involved in military operations, it is to treat the wounded, not to help the war effort: "The ICRC is an independent, neutral organization ensuring humanitarian protection and assistance for victims of armed conflict."[11]
From Just War to Weapons of Mass Destruction
CPA's Committee on Ethics (CoE) then considered whether there was any limit at all on military actions by CPA members. Weapons of mass destruction such as nuclear or chemical weapons by definition harm large numbers of innocent civilians, and therefore exceed the military, proportionate targets allowed under Just War Ethics.[12]
CPA's president had sent out a letter on May 27, 1991, stating that relating CPA's code of ethics to armed forces and nuclear weapons work was "not supported by our interpretation of the ethical principles, and that there were strongly held opposing political views in the Association".[8] Then in a letter on February 27, 1992, the Chair of the CPA Committee on Ethics stated in a letter to the CPA Section on Social Responsibility that CPA did not intend to limit involvement with military activities or even weapons of mass destruction such as nuclear weapons: "Your further comments/questions (including your request to consider nuclear weapons work) will need to be considered... there will be no further immediate consideration of this matter by the Committee on Ethics."[13]
Three years later this lack of a policy was clarified and formalized with no limits. The Ethics Committee of CPA made a policy statement in support of work on nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction in a letter dated March 31, 1995: "It is impossible to decide, in the abstract, that such work is a de facto violation of principles set out in the current Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists...Any blanket statement about the work of psychologists relating to the development of weapons of mass destruction would be inappropriate".[8]
This was an amazing policy, that Canadian psychologists could contribute to the mass-killing of innocent bystanders and children. Even psychologists complicit in the Holocaust did not have a formal policy like this,[5] when gas chambers were used in asylums and "claimed the lives of an estimated 275,000 psychiatric patients, prisoners and mentally retarded persons".[14] The gas chamber technology was perfected in asylums before it was instituted in the death camps, and was a key step between "the administrative mass killing of mental health patients and the subsequent emergence of genocide as an official instrument of Nazi public policy".[14]
What human costs and ethical transgressions would occur if psychologists had free rein to do any type of research or treatment on humans, as long as it was in the national interest? Lifton (1986) had already provided one answer to this question with his book The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide.[15] Then just 6 years after CPA's statement in support of any type of military work including weapons of mass destruction,[8] the al-Qaeda September 11 terrorist attacks in the US happened. Even though the American Psychological Association did not have a code of ethics providing carte blanche on military work like CPA, American psychologists designed torture methods including waterboarding for the CIA after 9/11.[16]
APA Denials & Parallels
American Psychological Association (APA) involvement in torture programs during the Bush presidency has been extensively documented by New York Times reporter James Risen in his book Pay Any Price: Greed, Power, and Endless War and by psychologists Stephen Soldz and Steven Reisner, authors of the report "All the President's Psychologists: The American Psychological Association's Secret Complicity with the White House and US Intelligence Community in Support of the CIA's "Enhanced" Interrogation Program".[17]
A 2014 Senate Intelligence Committee Report condemned the CIA's use of psychologists to develop, operate (i.e. torture) and assess its torture of suspects.[16] Those psychologists have since been the subject of legal trials.[18] According to the Washington Post, lawyers for the psychologists argued that they were just paid contractors and were not responsible; their defense was that they were comparable "to the low-level technicians whose employers provided lethal gas for Hitler's extermination camps".[19]
The "enhanced interrogation" designed by psychologists[20] and used in locations such as Guantanamo Bay detention camp and the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse following 9/11 caused APA to do a new policy review in 2005:[9] the APA Presidential Task Force on Psychological Ethics and National Security (PENS). The chair of the APA Ethics Committee reported on their findings:
"Like all of you, I have been deeply disturbed by reports of abusive and degrading treatment of prisoners and detainees. The PENS report makes clear that it is unethical and utterly antithetical to our role and values for a psychologist to engage in, direct, support, facilitate or offer training in any such activities. In my role as chair of the Ethics Committee, I will vigorously pursue the sanctioning of any psychologist found to have engaged in behaviors prohibited in the PENS report. I am confident that every member of the PENS Task Force fully supports me in this position."[21]
It was not just individual psychologists: APA leaders were complicit in torture and coverups.[17] In 2015 APA did a new independent review on psychologists involved with torture known as the Hoffman Report.[17] The 542-page report undermines the APA's repeated denials that any of its members were involved in torture: "For more than a decade, the American Psychological Association (APA) has maintained that a strict code of ethics prohibits its more than 130,000 members to aid in the torture of detainees while simultaneously permitting involvement in military and intelligence interrogations".[22] But APA was complicit; the report concluded "that the APA, despite growing evidence of detainee mistreatment, had secretly coordinated with Defense Department officials to promote ethics policies that matched the government's preferences."[19]
APA's policies on professional ethics were used for a double standard: "Every word in APA policy was approved by Defense Department officials... It was all, as Mr. Hoffman calls it, pre-vetted. Everything was pre-vetted by the Defense Department to make sure that it did not in any way constrain the Defense Department psychologists, the military psychologists, active at Guantánamo and elsewhere, while sounding like it was opposing torture."[23]
This deception is similar to the mis-quoting of CPA's code of ethics in CPA's policy statement supporting just war[8] published in their Psynopsis newspaper.[7] Similarly, CPA uses weasel words like "prohibited weapons" to give a false reassurance (although it is not clear what they mean by prohibited weapons, or if any weapons are even prohibited at all). For example, the final paragraph in this 2020 letter states that CPA's position on weapons of mass destruction has always been that CPA would never adopt a policy that contravened its code of ethics or that contributes to the development of prohibited weapons.[24]
In APA, there have been questions of whether the officials involved should be fired[17] or face professional misconduct charges.[23] Following the release of the Hoffman Report on July 2, 2015, APA's ethics director "was removed from his position"[9] The "oustings" of three other longstanding senior officials—the CEO, Deputy CEO and communications director—were also announced by APA less than two weeks later.[25]
CPA Denials
In spite of the Just War policies published in CPA's own Psynopsis newspaper,[7] CPA's Committee on Ethics (CoE) continues to make motherhood statements and to deny that it established policies allowing its members as a healthcare organization to be involved in warfare, armed force, and even weapons of mass destruction:[24]
The CoE has found no evidence supporting your allegations that, through the 1990's, the CPA "has made a series of policy statements that allow its members to contribute to armed force, killing and even weapons of mass destructions (sic) under some circumstances." ... CPA's position about torture and weapons of mass destruction has always been that psychologists are not to promote, contribute to, nor engage in any activity that contravenes international humanitarian law, which includes participating in the torture of persons, the development of prohibited weapons...
There is a Special Collection in the Norlin Library at the University of Colorado called the APA PENS Debate Collection to document APA's torture investigation.[23] In 2010, they asked for extensive documentation on the CPA policies on healthcare ethics, military work and weapons of mass destruction, which is archived in their permanent collection.[26][27]
Finally in 2017 the CPA code of ethics[28] prohibited work on weapons of mass destruction for the first time.[24]
No Term Limits
Although these are CPA policies, they are the legacy of a few individuals who have written the policies and have been officials at CPA for some 30 years. If the leadership does not change for decades, it makes it hard for them to credibly deny knowledge of earlier policies[24] when they themselves were the architects.
- Carole Sinclair was the principal author on the original 1992 Psynopsis policy statement in support of just war,[7] and wrote the letter as chair of the Ethics Committee in 1992 stating that CPA would not be taking a position on nuclear weapons work.[13] She was also Chair in 2017,[29] 2019–2020,[30] and remains on the Ethics Committee in 2021.[31]
- Cannie Stark was CPA President in 1992[32] and is a member of the ethics committee in 2019–2020[30] and 2020–2021.[31]
- Janel Gauthier co-authored the letter above claiming that in spite of documentation including (a) the Just War policies published in CPA's own Psynopsis newspaper,[7] and (b) Carole Sinclair's letter stating that CPA would not be taking any position on nuclear weapons work,[13] that there is "no evidence... that, through the 1990's, the CPA "has made a series of policy statements that allow its members to contribute to armed force, killing and even weapons of mass destruction..."[24] He was president of CPA in 1997 and 1998,[32] was on the Ethics Committee in 2019–2020,[30] and was Chair of the Ethics Committee in 2020–2021.[31]
To encourage diversity, bring in fresh ideas, and avoid the concentration of power within a small group, this list of political term limits shows that many governments (and organizations[33]) have term limits.
Organizational structure
CPA's head office is located in Ottawa, Ontario. The CPA has a directorate for each of its three pillars – science, practice, and education.
- The Science Directorate's mandate is to lobby government for increased funding for psychological research, promote and support the work of Canadian researchers in psychology, and educate the public about important findings from psychological science.[34]
- The Practice Directorate's mandate is to support and facilitate advocacy for the practice of psychology across Canada.[35]
- The Education Directorate's mandate is to oversee the accreditation of doctoral and internship programmes in professional psychology.[36]
The Board of Directors sets policies that guide the CPA. It is made up of Presidential Officers, Directors, and Executive Officers.[37]
Policy and position statements
The CPA publishes the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists which articulates ethical principles, values, and standards to guide all members of the Canadian Psychological Association. This Code is reviewed regularly with the most recent version published in January 2017. The ethical standards are built on four principles which form cornerstone guidelines for making ethical decision. Those principles are: Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Peoples; Responsible Caring; Integrity in Relationships; and Responsibility to Society.[38]
The CPA publishes policy and positions statements which are based on psychological evidence and ethical standards on given issues of importance. Below are some issues in which the CPA has issued public statements on:
Policy Statements
- Conversion/Reparative Therapy for Sexual Orientation
- Gender Identity in Adolescents and Adults
- Violence against Women
- Bullying in Children and Youth
- The Presence of Involved Third Party Observer in Neuropsychological Assessments
- Public Statements
- Physical Punishment of Children and Youth
- Ethical Use and Reporting of Psychological Assessment Results for Student Placement
- Convictions based Solely on Recovered Memories
- Public Statement by Paul Cameron on Homosexuality
- Equality for Lesbians, Gay Men, their Relationships and their Families
- Inclusion of Unpaid Household Activities in 1996 Census
- CPA Response to Canadian Panel on Volence Against Women
- Child Care
- The Death Penalty in Canada[39]
- Prejudicial Discrimination
- Minority Groups
- Discrimination in the Employment Areas
- Psychology of Women
- Female Role Models
- Education of Graduate Students
- Autonomous Profession
- Psychology in Hospitals
- Prepaid Health Schemes
- Psychologists Providers of Health Care
Position Statements
- Addressing Climate Change in Canada: The Importance of Psychological Science
- Inappropriate Psychological Test Use: A Public Safety Concern
- Recommendations for Addressing the Opioid Crisis in Canada
- Health and Well-Being Needs of LGBTQI People
- Recommendations for the Legalization of Cannabis in Canada
- Psychologists Practising to Scope: The Role of Psychologists in Canada's Public Institutions
- Neuropsychological Services in Canada
- Issues and Recommendations about Advertising and Children's Health Behaviour
- Same Sex Marriage
The CPA board of directors convenes working groups to explore various issues affecting the science, practice and education of psychology. Some of those working group reports are as follows:
- E-Psychology Working Group
- CPA Task Force on Title: Model Language Suggestions
- Recommendations for Addressing the Opioid Crisis in Canada
- Psychology's Response to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada's Report[40]
- Medical Assistance in Dying and End-of-Life Care
- Fitness to Stand Trial and Criminal Responsibility Assessments in Canada
- Supply and Demand for Accredited Doctoral Internship/Residency Positions in Clinical, Counselling, and School Psychology in Canada
- Evidence-Based Practice of Psychological Treatments: A Canadian Perspective
- CPA Task Force on the Supply of Psychologists in Canada
- CPA Task Force of Prescriptive Authority for Psychologists in Canada
Sections
Members of the CPA with interests in specific areas of psychology are able to form and join sections. Sections have official status under the By-laws of the CPA, which give them power to:
- Initiate and undertake activities of relevance to its members.
- Draft position papers on topics of relevance to the Section.
- Initiate policy statements in areas of expertise.
- Organize meetings within CPA.
- Make specific representation to external agencies or organizations, if it has received the approval of the Board of Directors to do so.
- Recommend that CPA make specific representations to external organizations or agencies.[41]
- Addiction Psychology
- Adult Development and Aging
- Black Psychology
- Brain and Cognitive Sciences
- Clinical Psychology
- Clinical Neuropsychology
- Community Psychology
- Counselling Psychology
- Criminal Justice Psychology
- Developmental Psychology
- Educational and School Psychology
- Environmental Psychology
- Extremism and Terrorism
- Family Psychology
- Health Psychology and Behavioural Medicine
- History and Philosophy Section
- Indigenous Peoples' Psychology
- Industrial/Organizational Psychology
- International and Cross-Cultural Psychology
- Psychologists in Hospitals and Health Centres
- Psychology Careers and Professionals
- Psychology in the Military
- Psychologists and Retirement
- Psychopharmacology
- Quantitative Methods
- Quantitative Electrophysiology
- Rural and Northern Psychology
- Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
- Social and Personality Section
- Sport and Exercise Psychology
- Students
- Teaching of Psychology
- Traumatic Stress Section
- Section for Women And Psychology (SWAP)
Membership and affiliation
The CPA offers five types of membership to individuals residing in Canada or the United States.
- Full member: One has to have a Masters or Doctoral degree in psychology (or its academic equivalent) to become a full member.
- Early Career Year 1: One has to have graduated with a Masters, or PhD in Psychology (or a related field), and are not returning to school, or those working on the first year of their Post Doc. Applicants must have graduated from university the previous year (e.g. 2020) to be eligible for Early Career Year 1 in the year they are applying for membership (e.g. 2021).
- Early Career Year 2: Available to members who were Early Career Year 1 in the previous membership year (e.g. 2020) OR recent graduates who have graduated with a Masters, or PhD in Psychology (or a related field) in the previous 2 years and are not returning to school or those working on the second year of their Post Docs.
- Retired member: One has to be a full member or fellow who has retired.
- Honorary life fellow/Honorary life member: Offered to individuals who are 70 years old and have been full members of the CPA for at least 25 years.
The CPA offers two types of affiliation to individuals residing in Canada or the United States.
- Student affiliate: One has to be an undergraduate or graduate student at a recognized university.
- Special affiliate: Open to those who have an active interest in psychology.
The CPA offers two types of affiliation to individuals residing outside of Canada or the United States.
- International affiliate: Open to international psychologists.
- International student affiliate: Open to international undergraduate and graduate students in psychology.[42]
The CPA now offers a section associate category for individuals who do not qualify for membership or are interested in joining only one section and receiving their section communication.
Public outreach and partnerships
The CPA produces a series of informative brochures for the public called "Psychology Works Fact Sheets". Each brochure is reviewed by psychologists who are knowledgeable on that subject before being published online. Topics range from information on psychological disorders, parenting challenges, pain, stress, perfectionism, and much more.[43] Along with these informative brochures, the CPA website contains many resources for individuals interested in psychology or receiving psychological services in Canada.
Every year, the CPA promotes February as Psychology Month and encourages Canadian psychologists to reach out to the public to raise awareness of what psychology is, what psychologists do, and how psychology benefits everyone.[44]
The CPA is engaged in numerous emergency preparedness activities.[45] Following national and international emergencies and disasters, the CPA provides the general public with timely resources on effective coping and information about stress and the indicators of psychological distress. The CPA is also involved in the National Emergency Psychosocial Advisory Consortium (NEPAC), the Mental Health Support Network, and the Council of Emergency Voluntary Sector Directors.
The CPA is also involved in partnerships with the following:[46]
- Canadian Alliance on Mental Illness and Mental Health (CAMIMH)
- Canadian Coalition for Public Health in the 21st Century (CCPH21)
- Canadian Consortium for Research (CCR)
- Council of Professional Associations of Psychologists (CPAP)
- Extended Healthcare Professionals Coalition (EHPC)
- Mental Health Commission of Canada (MHCC)
- Organizations for Health Action (HEAL)
- Promoting Relationships and Eliminating Violence Network (PREVNet)
- Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC)
- Science Media Centre of Canada
- Solutions for Kids in Pain (SKIP)
Publications
The CPA, in partnership with the American Psychological Association, quarterly publishes the following three academic journals:
- Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science
- Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology
- Canadian Psychology[47]
The CPA also publishes a quarterly magazine called Psynopsis. Issues contain brief articles on specific themes relating to psychology, as well as updates from the head office of CPA, committee news, information about the annual convention, and much more.[48]
Mind Pad is a professional newsletter that is written and reviewed by student affiliates of the Canadian Psychological Association. The newsletter is published biannually online.[49]
Convention
CPA hosts a convention annually. The conventions usually include pre-convention workshops, keynote and invited speakers, poster presentations, symposiums, award presentations, and various social events. The location varies each year from city to city across Canada.[50]
- 2022 Calgary[51]
- 2021 Virtual Event
- 2020 Virtual Event
- 2019 Halifax
- 2018 Montreal - combined with the International Congress of Applied Psychology (ICAP)
- 2017 Toronto
- 2016 Victoria
- 2015 Ottawa
- 2014 Vancouver
- 2013 Quebec City
- 2012 Halifax
- 2011 Toronto
- 2010 Winnipeg
- 2009 Montreal
- 2008 Halifax
- 2007 Ottawa
- 2006 Calgary
- 2005 Montreal
- 2004 St. John's
- 2003 Hamilton
- 2002 Vancouver
- 2001 Sainte-Foy
- 2000 Ottawa
- 1999 Halifax
- 1998 Edmonton
- 1997 Toronto
- 1996 Montreal
- 1995 Charlottetown
- 1994 Penticton
- 1993 Montreal
- 1992 Quebec City
- 1991 Calgary
- 1990 Ottawa
- 1989 Halifax
- 1988 Montreal
- 1987 Vancouver
- 1986 Toronto
- 1985 Halifax
- 1984 Ottawa
- 1983 Winnipeg
- 1982 Montreal
- 1981 Toronto
- 1980 Calgary
- 1979 Quebec City
- 1978 Ottawa
- 1977 Vancouver
- 1976 Toronto
- 1975 Vancouver
- 1974 Windsor
- 1973 Victoria
- 1972 Montreal
- 1971 St. John's
- 1970 Winnipeg
- 1969 Toronto
- 1968 Calgary
- 1967 Ottawa
- 1966 Montreal
- 1965 Vancouver
- 1964 Halifax
- 1963 Quebec City
- 1962 Hamilton
- 1961 Montreal
- 1960 Kingston
- 1959 Saskatoon
- 1958 Edmonton
- 1957 Toronto
- 1956 Ottawa
- 1955 Halifax
- 1954 Montreal
- 1953 Kingston
- 1952 Banff
- 1951 London
- 1950 Toronto
- 1949 Montreal
- 1948 Winnipeg
- 1947 Ottawa
- 1946 Kingston
- 1945 Montreal
- 1944 Toronto
- 1942 Toronto
- 1940 Montreal
Awards
Each year at the annual convention, CPA honors individuals who have made distinguished contributions to psychology in Canada with the following awards:
- CPA Gold Medal Award For Distinguished Lifetime Contributions to Canadian Psychology
- CPA John C. Service Member the Year Award
- CPA Donald O. Hebb Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology as a Science
- CPA Award for Distinguished Contributions to Education and Training in Psychology
- CPA Award for Distinguished Contributions to Psychology as a Profession
- CPA Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International Advancement of Psychology
- CPA Award for Distinguished Contributions to Public or Community Service
- Distinguished Practitioner Award
- CPA Award for Distinguished Lifetime Service to the Canadian Psychological Association
- CPA Humanitarian Award
- President's New Researcher Award[52]
The CPA has numerous student awards. As an example, the CPA gives out Certificates of Academic Excellence to students in each Canadian psychology department for the best undergraduate, masters, and doctoral thesis. The sections of CPA also award students for exceptional papers, presentations, and posters at the annual convention.[53]
Fellowships are awarded to members of the CPA who have made distinguished contributions to the advancement of the science or profession of psychology or who have given exceptional service to their national or provincial associations. The Committee on Fellows and Awards review nominations and make recommendations to the Board of Directors who appoint fellows.[54]
Presidents
The following have been Presidents of the Association:[55]
- 1940 – Roy B. Liddy
- 1941 – Edward A. Bott
- 1942 – Edward A. Bott
- 1943 – George Humphrey
- 1944 – George Humphrey
- 1945 – George Humphrey
- 1946 – Roy B. Liddy
- 1947 – Karl S. Bernhardt
- 1948 – Sperrin N.F. Chant
- 1949 – J.S.A. Bois
- 1950 – C. Roger Myers
- 1951 – John D. Ketchum
- 1952 – N.W. Norton
- 1953 – Donald O. Hebb
- 1954 – D.C. Williams
- 1955 – Noël Mailloux
- 1956 – George A. Ferguson
- 1957 – J.M. Blackburn
- 1958 – William E. Blatz
- 1959 – Dalbir Bindra
- 1960 – G.H. Turner
- 1961 – R.B. Bromiley
- 1962 – Robert B. Malmo
- 1963 – Gordon A. McMurray
- 1964 – A. Pinard
- 1965 – P. Lynn Newbigging
- 1966 – William R.N. Blair
- 1967 – D. J. L. Belanger
- 1968 – W.M. Coons
- 1969 – Mary J. Wright
- 1970 – Wallace Lambert
- 1971 – Virginia Douglas
- 1972 – Daniel Berlyne
- 1973 – A.M. Sullivan
- 1974 – D. Gibson
- 1975 – Allan Paivio
- 1976 – Park O. Davidson
- 1977 – R.G. Berry
- 1978 – G.E. MacDonald
- 1979 – James Inglis
- 1980 – John G. Adair
- 1981 – Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga
- 1982 – S.W. Pyke
- 1983 – T.P. Hogan
- 1984 – G. Skanes
- 1985 – E. Ames
- 1986 – P.C. Dodwell
- 1987 – Kenneth D. Craig
- 1988 – P. Gendreau
- 1989 – D. Olson
- 1990 – M. Sabourin
- 1991 – J. Conway
- 1992 – C. Stark-Adamec
- 1993 – L. Granger
- 1994 – Keith Dobson
- 1995 – J. Pettifor
- 1996 – D.R. Evans
- 1997 – Janel Gauthier
- 1998 – Janel Gauthier
- 1999 – Peter Suedfeld
- 2000 – G. Latham[56]
- 2001 – J. Ogloff
- 2002 – W. Melnyk
- 2003 – A. Ross
- 2004 – P. O’Neill
- 2005 – John L. Arnett
- 2006 – D. Perlman
- 2007 – R. Vallerand[57]
- 2008 – T. Hadjistavropoulos
- 2009 – C. Lee
- 2010 – M. Antony
- 2011 – P. Graf
- 2012 – D. Dozois
- 2013 – J. Frain
- 2014 – W. Linden
- 2015 - K. Mothersill
- 2016 – K. Kelloway
- 2017 - D. Dozois
- 2018 – P. Baillie
- 2019 – S. Mikail
- 2020 – I. Nicholson
- 2021 - K. Corace
- 2022 - A. Sinacore
- 2023 - K. Ritchie
See also
References
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- "A Vision for the School of Psychology: Building Upon Our Strengths to Define Our Future" (PDF). University of Ottawa. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-12-24. Retrieved 2013-08-14.
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- Chorover, S. L. (1979). From genesis to genocide: The meaning of human nature and the power of behaviour control. MIT Press, Cambridge MA. p. 7.
- Lifton, Robert Jay (1986). The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide. Basic Books.
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- Soldz, Stephen; Reisner, Steven (13 July 2015). "Opening Comments to the American Psychological Association (APA) Board of Directors" (PDF). Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- "CIA torture: lawsuit settled against psychologists who designed techniques". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
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- Tom Porter (29 July 2017). "What are the CIA 'Torture' Techniques That Two Psychologists are Going to Trial for?". Newsweek. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
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- Goodman, Amy (13 July 2015). "Psychologists Who Collaborated on Torture Program May Face Ethics Charges". Retrieved 4 January 2022.
- Corace, Kimberly; Gauthier, Janel (16 September 2020). "Letter from CPA President and Committee on Ethics" (PDF). Retrieved 4 January 2022.
- Ackerman, Spencer (14 July 2015). "Three senior officials lose their jobs at APA after US torture scandal". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
- Arrigo, Jean Maria (14 September 2010). "Letter requesting CPA documentation for APA PENS Debate Collection". Retrieved 4 January 2022.
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