Beekeeping in Ireland

Beekeeping has been practised in Ireland for close to 1,500 years. It has seen a surge in popularity in modern times, with the membership of beekeeping associations exceeding 4,000.[1] The growth in the practise has occurred despite increased pressures on bees and beekeepers due to parasites, diseases and habitat loss.

Harry Clarke's design drawing for the Saint Gobnait window in the Honan Chapel, Cork, Ireland (1914). Saint Gobnait of Ballyvourney is a sixth-century patron saint of beekeepers.

History

Honey bees were imported into Ireland, presumably from Britain, sometime after the 3rd century AD when Solinus mentioned that Ireland (Hibernia) had no bees.[2]

Some beekeepers have claimed that honey bees could have arrived across a post-glacial land bridge between Britain and Ireland,[3] however, this theory began to be refuted by a consensus within the academic community starting in 1983. Since 2006, the idea of a land bridge has been disproven based upon conclusive marine geological evidence.[4][5][6][7][8]

The earliest reference to bees in Ireland is in the Bee-Judgements (Old Irish: Bechbretha) of the Brehon Laws, which, among other issues, dealt with the ownership and value of swarms; the compensation paid by the beekeeper to a person stung by one of his bees and the compensation paid to the beekeeper if a person's hens began eating his bees. The Bechbretha were composed after 637 AD and are believed to be formed from previous legal rulings. They contain some Latin loan words, such as cera (meaning "beeswax"), but the existence in later texts of the Old Irish word for "cast swarm" (tarbsaithe), an act which only honey bees do, suggests the presence of honeybees near to the arrival of Christianity in 430 AD. Since the Old Irish word for beehive (lestar) is derived from a British word, beekeeping was probably not established until the 5th or 6th centuries.[9] This matches the time frame of the legend of St. Modomnoc, whom it is claimed first brought bees to Ireland from Wales in the early 540s, just as the extreme weather events of 535–536 were subsiding. A "great mortality of bees" was recorded in 950 AD, and again in 992 AD when it was said that "bees were largely kept in Ireland at this time, and were a great source of wealth to the people". In 1443 AD "the third epizooty [disease outbreak] of bees" was recorded.[10]

The first beekeeping book in Ireland was written in 1733, Instructions for Managing Bees. It included recommendations for the use of skeps and stipulated the best size to use to encourage at least one swarm per year with two after swarms. The bees would traditionally have been killed at the end of each season to be able to extract the honey and wax. By the mid-1700s, beekeepers started using boxes for keeping bees, and using different methods to extract the honey and wax without killing the bees.[11]

In the 1870s, Brother Joseph, a Carmelite monk from Loughrea, imported a bar and frame hive from London and then began to produce his own versions. He is also recorded as being one of the first to import the Ligurian Italian honey bee (A. m. ligustica) with a view to selective breeding "..as being more prolific.. and harder workers.. would improve our home breed (the Irish strain of A. m. mellifera)".[12] In 1881, the Reverend George Proctor was believed to be the first in the country to own Langstroth Hives (invented in 1852) with their moveable frames, upon which subsequent modern hives are based.[13][14]

Population history

No DNA research on honey bees in collections dating to before the Isle of Wight disease has been carried out. The indigenous bee population during that time is described as the "Old Irish Black Bee".

Isle of Wight Disease (IoWD)

Acarine, or as it was known at the time, Isle of Wight Disease (IoWD), was first reported on the Isle of Wight in 1906, where it wiped out 75% of the bee colonies in the first year. By 1912, the IoWD had arrived on the east coast of Ireland. It steadily spread throughout the island over the next decade. In 1919, bees were exported from County Tipperary to English beekeepers; however, these Irish bees also died.[15] By 1923, "the country was swept clean of bees." By 1927 the Irish Beekeepers Association (IBA) requested the government to adopt a restocking scheme for re-population and for "importation of (resistant) Queen Bees for re-sale at reduced prices." Many of the local bee associations had already begun importing their stocks. The majority of the bees were Dutch A. m. mellifera, with their characteristic tendency to swarm.[16]

In 1921, the cause of the IoWD was found to be the Acarapis woodi a trachea mite.[17] Bees with larger tracheas appear to be more susceptible to the IoWD,[18] and the northern European A. m. mellifera is considered to be a larger bee with its attendant larger trachea than other European honey bees.[19]

In 1945, Brother Adam, the breeder of the Buckfast bee, obtained "pure native" Old Irish Black Bee queens that had survived the Acarine epidemic "from a secluded place in the far west of Ireland," from which he raised virgin Queens and then crossed them with his Buckfast drones known to be resistant to Acarine, at his isolated Closed Mating Station on Dartmoor.[20] However, like the British Black Bee, from which it descended, all died from Acarine. In 1983 Brother Adam wrote, "the old English (and by inference Irish) brown bee… lives today only in the memory... and was completely wiped out."[21][22]

Possible survivors of the IoWD

Modern DNA analysis has shown that most of the DNA of Irish bees in Ireland are European dark bees, Apis mellifera mellifera. They are of Dutch origin, with the second-largest group being A. m. mellifera originating from France and smaller amounts of DNA originating from Switzerland and elsewhere in Europe. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA showed that all the bees tested were descended from imported European Queens.[23] The bees contained over 97% purity of A. m. mellifera DNA, showing little introgression from other European subspecies. Bees kept by members of the Native Irish Honey Bee Society (NIHBS) have minimal genetic traces of the honey bees from before the IoWD.[24]

Some NIHBS members now acknowledge, as a result of the imports after the IoWD, the presence of Dutch DNA in the bees in Ireland, but at the same time maintain that there are descendants of the indigenous Irish bees somewhere in Ireland.[25] Some bees from the Beara peninsula have unusual genetic markers, and there has been speculation that this may represent a remnant of the pre-1900 population.[26]

Other groups suggest that whatever the genetic stock may represent, these attempts will result in inbreeding, to the long-term detriment of the population.[27]

Honeybee pests, diseases, and poisons

Varroa
Apis mellifera with a Varroa destructor mite on its thorax

Presently, the Varroa destructor mite is the single greatest threat to bee colonies in Ireland. In the 1990s, colonies would die within three to four years if left untreated. By the 2000s, this had become closer to two years. Typically after the initial infestation, there can be a rapid increase in the mite population which would lead to colony collapse.[28] Varroa mites arrived in Ireland in 1998 and in several years had spread throughout most of the island.[29] The mortality rate for over-wintered colonies during 2015–16 in the Republic of Ireland was 29.5% and for Northern Ireland was 28.2%; for comparison Wales was 22.4% and Scotland was 18%, while the European average was 12%.[30] As a result of Varroa, wild colonies do not survive for long; feral colonies, swarms that have escaped from apiaries, will die quickly. However, their homes can be re-occupied afterward by new swarms for the cycle to repeat. These feral colonies can become a source of large Varroa populations. The fact that Varroa has shown resistance to previously effective treatments can result in regional losses as high as 40–60%.[31]

Widely-spread feral colonies in tree hives in a forest environment have been found to be able to survive with Varroa on a long-term basis, however these bees are not A. m. mellifera as is common in Ireland and these colonies do not suppress Varroa reproduction and the reason for their survival is unclear.[32] In another case of surviving untreated colonies, the Varroa acts as a host to a non-lethal Deformed Wing Virus (DWV).[33]

Conventional advice is to continually manage the Varroa mite.[34] An alternative programme is to select for bees that tend to remove and kill Varroa mites in the hope that such bees will not need treatment against the Varroa mite and may also survive in the wild. FIBKA and a founding member of NIHBS[35] have a program to do this "by observing the number of damaged mites", without DNA analysis nor the use of instrumental insemination.[36][37][38] The proxy measure, marks on mite's exoskeletons, previously attributed to damage caused by grooming, may not be accurate; these marks may be mere "regular dorsal dimples (indentations)".[39] No useful degree of resistance to Varroa has been found in Irish bees.[40] German breeders of Buckfast are selling queens which they advertise as resistant to Varroa.[41]

In 2013, a Varroa Tolerance Breeding Program was set up by NIHBS.[42] Focusing solely on what they describe as "Native Irish" bees (A. m. mellifera), in conjunction with several breeding groups throughout Ireland,[43] including the Galtee Bee Breeding Group whose apiary manager, Micheál Mac Giolla Coda from County Tipperary, is a former President of BIBBA.[44][45][46] Bees kept by NIHBS members were not able to resist the Varroa mites without treatments.[47]

In 2017, research was conducted focusing on A. m. mellifera from the NIHBS breeders, and searching for the Hygienic Behaviour characteristic (which can result in disease and mite resistance), no Hygienic Behaviour was reported; the full results were not published.[48][49] Earlier research had found that the A. m. mellifera subspecies had the lowest Hygienic Behaviour across Europe: The A. m. mellifera from Native Bee (A. m. mellifera) Conservation Areas (the least genetically diverse) had the worst results.[50]

Foulbroods
Insert a probe to swab the cell, if there is a sticky or "ropey" portion attached to the probe that creates a "string" between the cell and the probe, the hive is likely infected with American foulbrood[51]

American foulbrood (AFB) is caused by the spore-forming bacterium Paenibacillus larvae, and the European foulbrood (EFB) is caused by the non-spore forming bacterium, Melissococcus plutonius.[52] Both are referred to as Foul Brood and have been known in Ireland since at least 1897. In the Irish Bee Journal of 1901, "the rapid spread of foul brood, that most terrible pest" was discussed. They are both extraordinarily infectious and persistent diseases affecting only the brood, and spores of AFB can survive for up to 40 years. The adoption of modern beekeeping aided in spreading both these diseases, with the use of moveable frames, non-destruction of colonies each year, and beekeeping equipment moving between apiaries. They are the two brood diseases that are notifiable in both jurisdictions of Ireland.[53][54] In 1903, the Bee Pest Act was enacted in all of Ireland, and in 1945 The Bee Pest Prevention Act was enacted in Northern Ireland (which repealed the previous 1908 Act.) UKBA and government officials worked closely to bring this about, initially the 1945 Act also included Acarine and Nosema as notifiable diseases reflecting their devastating effects on bee populations at the time. Bee Inspectors have been appointed to regularly inspect beehives and testing facilities have been established for beekeepers to have the contents of their hives diagnosed for disease. These services are provided free of charge. In 1945 in Northern Ireland, 14% of hives inspected (including unoccupied) were found to contain AFB, however, by 1949, this had been reduced to 2.8%. In 1950, 11.9% of unoccupied hives inspected contained AFB spores.[55]

Oxytetracycline tetracycline, an antibiotic, can be used for treatment against EFB, but it is dependent on the Bee Inspector. It can also be used as a treatment against AFB, but it and all other treatments for AFB are now illegal. The only course of action that can be taken, once AFB confirms with a Bee Inspector that the hive is contaminated, is for the hive to be sealed at night and then the hive and bees have to be burned. In both cases, a ban on moving anything from the apiary during the outbreak will be imposed.[56]

Other bee diseases and pests

The other usual diseases of the honey bee are present in Ireland, although currently it is believed that Ireland is free from the Small Hive Beetle (Aethina tumida Murray)[57] and Tropilaelaps mercedesae.[58]

In 2021, an "alive but dying" Asian hornet, Vespa velutina, was found in Dublin. There was no evidence of a nest in the area and the Hornets' point of entry was believed to be via a nearby international transportation hub. To date Ireland appears to still be free from any Hornet species.[59][60]

Pesticide poisoning and forage destruction

Of the agricultural chemicals used, it is the fungicides and the insecticides that can affect bees the most. Fungicides may pass into pollen and then transfer into the bee bread. Some fungicides are synergistic with some acaricides and are used to combat Varroa, magnifying their effect on the bees themselves.[61] From agriculture, there is widespread use of pesticides which may cause serious harm to insects including bees, along with widespread destruction of habitat which is essential for bee foraging.[62]

Formation of beekeeping associations

In 1880, the British Beekeepers Association (BBKA) decided to tour Ireland with a "bee tent" to show modern beekeeping equipment and manipulations of bees to the public. They were joined by Brother Joseph, throughout much of Ireland as he continued on his "holy crusade" for the honey bee; he later proposed the formation of an Irish beekeeping association "for promoting and instructing the improved methods of bee culture to the cottagers of Ireland". In 1881 the Irish Beekeepers Associations (IBKA) was formed, holding a honey show in Dublin; in 1908 their name was changed to Irish Beekeepers' Association (IBA), in 1939 it was closed down due to decreasing membership.[63]

In 1943, the County Dublin Beekeepers' Association was formed, from which an attempt was made to revive the old IBA to form an all-Ireland body. On St. Patrick's Day in 1944, the Federation of Irish Beekeepers' Associations was formed; the recently formed Ulster Bee Keepers' Association (UBKA) did not associate themselves with it.[64]

In 1926, the Banbridge and District Beekeeping Association was formed; in 1934, its name became the Northern Ireland Bee Keepers' Association. In 1942 the UBKA was formed and in 1951 the smaller NIBKA affiliated with it and was later absorbed into it. In 1949 there were 6,000 beekeepers with 16,000 hives, the most common of which was the CDB Hive. At the 14th Annual Conference in 1959 a lecture was given entitled "How to take advantage of the Buckfast strain of bees, to be shortly introduced into Northern Ireland". At the 15th Annual Conference in 1960 a member of the Ministry of Agriculture gave the lecture "The Buckfast Strain of Honeybee and its dissemination throughout Northern Ireland". In 1966 at the 21st Annual Conference of the UBKA it was decided that all subsequent Conferences should be held at Greenmount Agricultural and Horticultural College; it was also at this conference that the Ministry of Agriculture informed the UBKA "that due to the increase of Nosema, the Buckfast Queen distribution scheme was being suspended", a scheme initially begun to improve the local bee stock (the A. m. mellifera imported after the IoWD).[65]

In 1966, the FIBKA raised the subject of forming an All-Ireland Beekeepers' Alliance but the UBKA unanimously rejected the suggestion, opting instead to support continued co-operation.[66]

In 2017, the Irish Beekeepers' Association CLG (IBA) was formed as an all-Ireland body for all beekeepers, to represent and also provide group insurance for the beekeeping Associations, as well as to individual beekeepers who are not members of Associations.[67]

Current active organisations

The main beekeeping organisations in the Republic of Ireland are the Federation of Irish Beekeepers' Associations (FIBKA) and the Irish Beekeepers Association/Cumann Beachairí na hÉireann (CLG), while in Northern Ireland the main beekeeping organisations are the Ulster Beekeepers Association (UBKA) and the Institute of Northern Ireland Beekeepers (INIB). There are also a number of other organisations on the island of Ireland, including the Native Irish Honey Bee Society (NIHBS) and the Irish Buckfast Beekeepers Association (IBBA).

Federation of Irish Beekeepers' Associations CLG (FIBKA)

FIBKA is the largest organisation of beekeeping associations in Ireland, claiming to have been established in 1881, and reconstituted 1943.[68][69] FIBKA is a not-for-profit federation of beekeeping associations in Ireland with currently sixty affiliated associations which between them have over 3,500 members.

FIBKA has run a summer course in beekeeping[70] every year since 1961, until interrupted in 2020 by the COVID-19 pandemic. This had been held at Gormanston, Co. Meath in Gormanston College but starting in 2022 will be held in Maynooth University in a shortened 2-day event. Up to this, examinations were held in the full range of beekeeping education, from the preliminary exams up to Honey Judge. FIBKA is a signatory, contributor to, and supporter of the All-Ireland Pollinator Plan, and is a member of the European Professional Beekeepers Association,[71] the Council of National Beekeeping Associations in the United Kingdom and Ireland,[72] working with other organizations such as The UK National Honey Show, BeeLife (European Beekeeping Conservation), European Professional Beekeepers Association and Apimondia.

FIBKA's stated goals also include the promotion and conservation of the A. m. mellifera which they call "the native dark bee" as stated in their Constitution.[73]

Irish Beekeepers' Association CLG (IBA)

The IBA is "a democratic and egalitarian company, founded in October 2017", as an "alternative organisation (to FIBKA)".[74] Its stated goals are "to be Open, Fair and Transparent in all Our Actions for Our Members and to promote Beekeeping for all Beekeepers" ... "throughout the island of Ireland". The members "hope to create an environment of mutual respect and understanding, so that no beekeeper ever feels marginalised or ostracised because of the type of bee they keep".[75] It offers membership insurance for both the North and South of Ireland, also offering individual membership not just association membership. It provides facilities and benefits comparable to those available from FIBKA, although it is much smaller in both membership (23 association members)[76] and the number of available lecturers due to its later establishment. They support and endorse the All-Ireland Pollinator plan as well as the National Heritage Plan.[77]

Native Irish Honey Bee Society (NIHBS)

The Native[lower-alpha 1] Irish Honey Bee Society was formed in 2012. NIHBS's mission is "the conservation of the native Irish Honey Bee Apis mellifera mellifera". NIHBS also plays a role in the conservation of native pollinators. NIHBS endeavors to educate Irish beekeepers and the general public in ways and means of improving the environment for all. "The native Irish honey bee is part of the subspecies that evolved in northwestern Europe,[80] and research supported by DAFM and NIHBS confirmed unambiguously in 2018 that it is genetically distinctive. This distinctiveness contributes the traits that make it the bee most adapted to Ireland's climate and weather patterns. Nevertheless, the bee is vulnerable to external threats, principally hybridization with bees from a different genetic stock and to diseases that might be imported with bees from abroad."[81] The NIHBS aims to establish areas of conservation throughout the island for the conservation of "native" bees.[82]

Members of the Native Irish Honey Bee Society have tried to maintain what they believe are relatively "pure stocks" of "the native Irish honeybee".[83] Some members of the NIHBS still claim that their "Native Irish Honey Bee is a strain of the Dark European Honey Bee (A. m. mellifera)", meaning genetically distinct, some even stating that their own bees are unique ecotypes.[84][85]

Protection of the Native Irish Honey Bee Bill [86]
In October 2021, Senator Vincent P. Martin, a member of the Green Party, under the advice and guidance of the NIHBS, submitted a Bill to the Seanad Éireann (Irish Senate) with the stated aim of banning imports into the Republic of Ireland "of non-native honey bees". The Bill would permit the importation of honey bees from outside the Republic of Ireland (i.e. Northern Ireland, Britain, or Europe) as long as they were the A. m. mellifera sub-species which are also called "Native Irish" even if they do not originate from Ireland.[87]
The Bill does not clearly define how the A. m. mellifera will be identified. Nevertheless, any person convicted of contravening this Bill (should it become law) could potentially face a fine up to €125,000 and up to 1 year imprisonment; a second conviction could result in a fine of €250,000 and a 2 year imprisonment.[88]

Irish Buckfast Beekeepers Association (IBBA)

The IBBA promotes the keeping and breeding of Buckfast bees in Ireland. It is affiliated with the Federation of European Buckfast Beekeepers’ Associations,[89] an international group of breeders dedicate time to maintain and improve this bee breed.[90] They support beekeepers irrespective of the type of bee kept by the beekeeper.[91] A controlled open mating area has been established within the Five Glens area of north County Leitrim, to enable Buckfast beekeepers to bring their virgin Buckfast queens to be mated with Buckfast drones.[92]

Ulster Beekeepers Association (UBKA)

The UBKA was formed in 1942[93] and is an association of the fourteen affiliated beekeeping associations in Northern Ireland.[94] The UBKA in conjuction with CAFRE, runs an Open College Network Northern Ireland (OCN NI) endorsed beekeeping course and intends to develop higher level studies in the near future, this education is now independent from FIBKA.[95] It is also a member of the Council of National Beekeeping Associations in the United Kingdom and Ireland.[96] The UBKA holds an Annual Conference at the CAFRE Greenmount Campus site in Antrim.

Institute of Northern Ireland Beekeepers (INIB)

The INIB was formed in 2001.[97] Members automatically become members of the BBKA.[98] The INIB holds an Annual Conference and Honey Show at Lough Neagh Discovery Centre, Oxford Island. Its primary focus is on the promotion of beekeeping through education and they work closely with the UBKA.

Irish Buckfast & Carniolan Beekeepers (IBCB)

The IBCB is a group of beekeepers interested in promoting of Buckfast and A. m. carnica (Carniolan) bees throughout Ireland. Containing experienced members to complete beginners, they state that they are "not really interested in A. m. mellifera bees," the so-called "native Irish bee," but that they are not "bee racists," having amongst their membership beekeepers that only keep A. m. mellifera bees.[99][100]

Research

Within Ireland, the research into honey bees has focused on identifying the type of bee (sub-species) present, not on their characteristics, unlike in the rest of Europe. Over recent years this research has shifted towards genetic analysis, primarily driven by the NIHBS and formally the GBBG. Before 2000, genetic diversity throughout the island appeared high; however, by 2005, reduced genetic diversity was observed around the Galtee Vee Valley area due to the breeding program of the GBBG. By 2017 this decline had also been observed in County Louth and Connemara. It was again concluded by the authors of the research that the NIHBS breeding groups in these areas had caused the reduction of genetic diversity in their attempts to breed their genetically pure "native Irish honeybee."

In 2021, the NIHBS began publishing articles on its website refuting the scientific research findings that had identified the NIHBS as the source of the decline in genetic diversity. An article by Michael C. Mac Giolla Coda[101] stated, "the gene pool has been greatly reduced by the decimation of all the wild colonies (due to Varroa destructor)" another claim was "We never had a problem with queen failure until the arrival of Varroa," another article published by Jonathan Getty[102] stated "The gene pool has been drastically reduced by the Varroa mite" another claim was that the NIHBS bees "have developed resistance to many bee diseases" due to "the Irish climate." No sources were cited to support these claims.

  • In the 1960s, wing morphometric analysis was conducted on bees collected throughout Ireland, finding that they had a high genetic diversity. The majority of their DNA came from A. m. mellifera.[103] In the 2000's the research was repeated by the Galtee Bee Breeding Group (GBBG). While the percentage of A. m. mellifera DNA had increased on average throughout the island, the genetic diversity had decreased. Over a third of the samples came from County Tipperary, where the GBBG is based.[104]
  • The survey entitled Varying Degrees of Apis mellifera ligustica Introgression in Protected Populations of the Black Honeybee, Apis mellifera mellifera, in Northwest Europe in 2005 received samples from the Galtee Bee Breeding Group (GBBG), taken from eight adjacent counties, containing insignificant genetic diversity, the lowest recorded across Northern Europe, and therefore treated as one sample. They were found to be pure A. m. mellifera descended from Queens imported from Britain or the Netherlands. Researchers concluded the low genetic diversity to be a result of the dominance of the GBBG.[105]
  • Starting in 2015 the Wild* Honey Bee Study (*feral, free-living or unmanaged), was initiated by the National University of Ireland Galway (NUIG) in collaboration with the NIHBS and the FIBKA, "to discover the number and distribution of their colonies in order to devise strategies for its conservation". Over 200 feral colonies were reported.[106] The results of the study was published in 2021.
  • For the 2017 Sustainable Management of Resilient Bee Populations research, samples of A. m. mellifera from Ireland were provided, they were analyzed for their inbreeding coefficients and compared to other bees throughout Europe. The A. m. mellifera from Ireland were found to significantly have the broadest range of inbreeding coefficients, potentially resulting in inbreeding. The research concluded that the high overwintering deaths, in part attributable to Varroa destructor mites, had not reduced genetic diversity in Europe, no explanation was given for Ireland's unique results, but it was not attributed to Varroa.[107]
  • A Significant Pure Population of the Dark European Honey Bee (Apis mellifera mellifera) Remains in Ireland: In 2018 genetic analysis was published on 412 bee samples from 81 sites (6% from Northern Ireland), all of the bees were found to contain Mitochondria DNA (inherited through the female Queen line) observable in European A. m. mellifera, meaning that they were descended from imported continental bees from 1923 on wards. Of the identified haplotypes (meaning geographic regions from mainland Europe in this context) two thirds were descended from the Netherlands, "...amongst the beekeepers in the NIHBS, these (Dutch bees) are the predominant type of A. m. mellifera, here (in Ireland) reflecting the significant imports by beekeepers from the Netherlands after the loss of managed colonies during Isle of Wight disease", other countries identified as origins of the bees sampled were from France, Norway and Switzerland.
The research stated "97.8% of sampled bees were determined to be pure" and "genetically diverse" A. m. mellifera from an island wide perspective; however this diversity was not the case at the local level where "significantly lower (genetic diversity) than expected" was observed, due to "the elements of controlled breeding... of breeders" - the paper named the Galtee, Connemara and Louth "local breeding groups focused on A. m. mellifera" as the cause of this lack of genetic diversity.
The research paper stated, "It has been suggested that A. m. mellifera was entirely eliminated from Britain and Ireland at the time of the Isle of Wight disease (Adam, 1983)" what Br. Adams stated was "the old English (and by inference Irish) brown bee… lives today only in the memory.. and was completely wiped out (by the Isle of Wight disease)," clearly not referring to the imported European A. m. mellifera subspecies, but a British strain (ecotype) of the subspecies.[1] The NIHBS was listed as a co-author and co-funder of the research.[108]
  • In an investigation of free-living honey bee colonies in Ireland published in 2021, sites of seventy-six colonies of honey bees were identified throughout the Republic of Ireland. Samples for genetic analysis were taken, and their survival was recorded. They were all found to be A. m. mellifera, "fundamentally undifferentiated from the managed" population, with 40% belonging to the Dutch haplotype promoted by the NIHBS. Over 76% of them died within less than 2.5 years, they all died within four years, and they had an average annual death rate of 55%. The paper concluded with Ireland "having been the welcome recipient of Dutch honey bees following the collapse of Irish beekeeping at the beginning of the 20th century, Ireland may yet be able to return the favour by returning bees of Dutch haplotypes home to the Netherlands from a free-living population".[109]
  • The Beara Bee Case Study was presented in 2021 by Dr. Hassett, detailing a distinct A. m. mellifera lineage discovered in 2017 on the Beara Peninsula. Their DNA was unique compared to the A. m. mellifera in Ireland (descended from continental imports since 1923). They are also unique to known northern European A. m. mellifera lineages. This has caused speculation that this may be a "unique mutation" or "an ancient historic Apis mellifera mellifera," possibly a remnant of the Old Irish Black Bee thought to have been wiped out by the Isle of Wight Disease in the early 1900s. It was referred to as the "Native Native (Irish) Bee" to differentiate it from the "Continental (Dutch) Native Bee" in Ireland, promoted by the NIHBS.[110]

Footnotes
  1. Within Northern Ireland (part of the UK) the internationally recognised definition for Non-Native fauna is used, meaning an animal (in this case A. mellifera) that was imported by humans, so that the Honey Bee is not native to Northern Ireland:[78] But in the Republic Of Ireland a unique definition is used for the word Native, meaning an animal which was established in Ireland by 1500 A.D. (even if it was imported by humans), resulting in the Honey Bee being defined as native within the Republic of Ireland.[79] However Irish Government websites since 2021 are now quoting and providing web links to internationally recognised definitions of native and non-native, which would result in the honey bee being no longer defined as native to Ireland.

Publications
  • Irish Bee Journal (IBJ) was published by the Rev J.G. Digges from 1901 to 1933, and was succeeded by An Beachaire. FIBKA archives include bound volumes of the IBJ and these are available to researchers.
  • An Beachaire,[111] subtitled The Irish Beekeeper, was first published as a successor to the Irish Bee Journal in 1947, and is now published monthly by the FIBKA of which it is the official organ. The Irish word for bee is "beach", with "an beachaire" meaning "the beekeeper".
  • The Irish Beekeepers' Association CLG (IBA) publishes a bimonthly newsletter.[112]
  • Bee Craft Magazine[113] is offered by the IBA to members at a 10% reduced price.[114] Although this is a UK publication, much of its content is applicable to Ireland.
  • The Four Seasons (Ceithre Raithe na Bliana) magazine is published four times per year by the NIHBS, formally it was the voice of the GBBG.[115]
  • Digital versions of back issues of BBKA News,[116] subtitled The Newsletter of the British Beekeepers' Association, are provided to members of the Federation of Irish Beekeepers' Associations.

See also

References
  1. "Beekeepers Census 2019". Federation of Irish Beekeepers’Associations (FIBKA) and the Irish Beekeepers Association (IBA). Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  2. GAIUS JULIUS SOLINUS (3rd Century AD). COLLECTANEA RERVM MIRABILIVM. pp. XX:II. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  3. Prof. Grace McCormack. ""The Origins and Diversity of Apis Mellifera in Ireland - Where did Ireland's honeybees come from?"". irishbeekeepers.ie. Irish Beekeepers Association CLG. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  4. Edwards, R.J.; Brooks, A. (2008). "The Island of Ireland: Drowning the Myth of an Irish Land-bridge?". In Davenport, J.J.; Sleeman, D.P.; Woodman, P.C. (eds.). Mind the Gap: Postglacial Colonisation of Ireland. Special Supplement to The Irish Naturalists' Journal. pp. 19–34. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
  5. Eileen Reilly (2006). "An ever closing gap? Modern ecological and palaeoecological contributions towards understanding the Irish post-glacial insect fauna". The Irish Naturalists' Journal. Postglacial Colonization Conference: Mind the Gap 2006 (Special Supplement): 63–70. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  6. "Was there a land bridge across the Irish Sea?". irishtimes.com. The Irish Times. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  7. Michael Viney. "Solving the mystery of our 'native' fauna". irishtimes.com. The Irish Times. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
  8. Andrew Cooper & D. Jackson. "Sea-level change and inner shelf stratigraphy off Northern Ireland". academia.edu. Marine Geology. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
  9. Kelly, Fergus (1983). Bechbretha: Old Irish Law-tract on Bee-keeping (1 ed.). Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. pp. 13, 37. ISBN 0901282731.
  10. Flemming, George (1871). Animal plagues: Their history, nature and prevention. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 53, 58, & 118. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
  11. Crane, Eva (1998). "Irish Beekeeping in the past" (PDF). Ulster Folklife. 44: 48.
  12. W. Augustus Munn (1844). A Description of the Bar and Frame Hive. S. & J. Bentley, Wilson, and Fley. pp. 2–21. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
  13. Crane, Eva (1998). "Irish Beekeeping in the past" (PDF). Ulster Folklife. 44: 45–51.
  14. Watson, James K. (1981). Bee-keeping in Ireland: A history. The Glendale Press. pp. 1–5, 6–11, 271–275. ISBN 978-0907606000.
  15. J. N. Kidd (1919). "Eliminating the "Isle of Wight" Bee Disease by Independent Brood Incubation". The Bee World. 1 (7): 137–139. doi:10.1080/0005772X.1919.11093765. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
  16. Watson, James K. (1981). Bee-keeping in Ireland: A history. The Glendale Press. pp. 146–148. ISBN 978-0907606000.
  17. J. Rennie; P. B. White; E. J. Harvey (1921). Isle of Wight disease in hive bees. Edinburgh, Robert Grant & Son. pp. 24 (XXIX). Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  18. F. Hatjina; C. Papaefthimiou; A. Gregorc; G. Theophilidis (2004). "Differences in the morphology of prothoracic and propodeal spiracles in three strains of Apis mellifera: Possible relation to resistance against Acarapis woodi". Journal of Apicultural Research. 43 (3): 105–113. doi:10.1080/00218839.2004.11101119. S2CID 89091316. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  19. M. L. Winston (1991). The Biology of the Honey Bee (Paperback ed.). Harvard University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0674074095. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  20. Jean-Marie Van Dyck. "Sherberton Br. Adam protected mating place (Dartmoor, GB)". Karl Kehrle Foundation. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
  21. Brother Adam (1968). ""Isle of Wight" or Acarine Disease: its Historical and Practical Aspects". Bee World. 49 (1): 6–18. doi:10.1080/0005772X.1968.11097180.
  22. Brother Adam (1983). In Search of the Best Strains of Bees (2nd Revised ed.). Peacock Press. ISBN 978-0907908067.
  23. Jack Hassett, Keith A Browne, Grace P McCormack, Elizabeth Moore, Native Irish Honey Bee Society, Gabrielle Soland & Michael Geary (2018) A significant pure population of the dark European honey bee (Apis mellifera mellifera) remains in Ireland, Journal of Apicultural Research, 57:3, 337-350, DOI: 10.1080/00218839.2018.1433949 https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2018.1433949 accessed 12.1.2022
  24. J. Hassett; Native Irish Honey Bee Society; G. Soland; G. McCormack; E. Moore; K. Browne; M. Geary (2018). "A significant pure population of the dark European honey bee (Apis mellifera mellifera) remains in Ireland". Journal of Apicultural Research. 57 (3): 337–350. doi:10.1080/00218839.2018.1433949.
  25. Keith. "Why the Native Bee?". irishdarknativehoneybees.com. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  26. Jack Hassett, Keith A Browne, Grace P McCormack, Elizabeth Moore, Native Irish Honey Bee Society, Gabrielle Soland & Michael Geary (2018) A significant pure population of the dark European honey bee (Apis mellifera mellifera) remains in Ireland, Journal of Apicultural Research, 57:3, 337-350, DOI: 10.1080/00218839.2018.1433949 https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2018.1433949 accessed 12.1.2022
  27. Jack Hassett, Keith A Browne, Grace P McCormack, Elizabeth Moore, Native Irish Honey Bee Society, Gabrielle Soland & Michael Geary (2018) A significant pure population of the dark European honey bee (Apis mellifera mellifera) remains in Ireland, Journal of Apicultural Research, 57:3, 337-350, DOI: 10.1080/00218839.2018.1433949 https://doi.org/10.1080/00218839.2018.1433949 accessed 12.1.2022
  28. Büchler, Ralph (1994). "Varroa Tolerance in Honey Bees—Occurrence, Characters and Breeding". Bee World. 75 (2): 54–70. doi:10.1080/0005772X.1994.11099201.
  29. McMullan, John (2018). "Adaptation in Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) Colonies Exhibiting Tolerance to Varroa destructor in Ireland". Bee World. 95 (2): 39–43. doi:10.1080/0005772X.2018.1431000.
  30. Brodschneider, Robert (2016). "Preliminary analysis of loss rates of honey bee colonies during winter 2015/16 from the COLOSS survey". Journal of Apicultural Research. 55 (5): 375–378. doi:10.1080/00218839.2016.1260240.
  31. Dr. Eric C. Mussen. "Treating Colonies for Varroa Mite Infestations" (PDF). entomology.ucdavis.edu. University of California, Davis. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
  32. Thomas Seeley (2007). "Honey bees of the Arnot Forest: A population of feral colonies persisting with Varroa destructor in the northeastern United States". Apidologie. 38 (1): 19–29. doi:10.1051/apido:2006055. S2CID 33310178. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
  33. G. J. Mordecai; L. E. Brettell; S. J. Martin; D. Dixon; I. M. Jones; Declan C. Schroeder (2016). "Superinfection exclusion and the long-term survival of honey bees in Varroa-infested colonies". The ISMA Journal: Multidisciplinary Journal of Microbial Ecology. 10 (5): 1082–1191. doi:10.1038/ismej.2015.186. PMC 5029227. PMID 26505829.
  34. J. Ambrose, D. Tarpy, J. Summers. "Managing Varroa Mites in Honey Bee Colonies". content.ces.ncsu.edu. North Carolina State University. Retrieved 26 November 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. Patterson, Roger. "Lecturer: Micheál Mac Giolla Coda. Galtee Bee Breeding Group, Ireland". www.dave-cushman.net. 2014 BIBBA/SICAMM Conference. Retrieved 1 January 2019.
  36. Eoine, Burke-Kennedy (2012). "Breeding a better bee". The Irish Times. Thurs. 19th April 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  37. "The Native Irish Honey Bee - Genetic Resource Grant Aid Scheme". Department of Agriculture, Food and Marine. DAFM. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
  38. Prof. Grace McCormack. "Enhancement and protection of native Irish breeding stock of Apis mellifera mellifera with Varroa tolerance" (PDF). www.agriculture.gov.ie. NUI Galway. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
  39. Davis, Arthur R. (2008). "Regular dorsal dimples on Varroa destructor – Damage symptoms or developmental origin?" (PDF). Apidologie. 40 (2): 151–162. doi:10.1051/apido/2009001. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  40. Prof. Grace McCormack. "Enhancement and protection of native Irish breeding stock of Apis mellifera mellifera with Varroa tolerance" (PDF). www.agriculture.gov.ie. NUI Galway. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
  41. Dr. Peter Stöfen. "REPORTS: NEW: "Hygiene"-Buckfast Queens". Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  42. "Varroa tolerance breeding prog". nihbs.org. NIHBS (Native Irish Honey Bee Society). Retrieved 28 November 2018.
  43. "Queen Rearing (A.m.mellifera)". nihbs.org. NIHBS. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  44. Patterson, R. "Micheál Mac Giolla Coda". dave-cushman.net. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  45. "BIBBA". bibba.com. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  46. "GBBG - Home page". Galtee Bee Breeding Group. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  47. Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine. "The Native Irish Honey Bee - Enhancement and Protection of Native Irish Breeding Stock of Apis Mellifera Mellifera with Varroa Tolerance". gov.ie. gov.ie. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  48. "The Native Irish Honey Bee - Genetic Resource Grant Aid Scheme". Department of Agriculture, Food and Marine. DAFM. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
  49. Prof. Grace McCormack. "Enhancement and protection of native Irish breeding stock of Apis mellifera mellifera with Varroa tolerance" (PDF). www.agriculture.gov.ie. NUI Galway. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
  50. Sreten Andonov, Ralph Büchler (2014). "Swarming, defensive and hygienic behaviour in honey bee colonies of different genetic origin in a pan-European experiment". Journal of Apicultural Research. 53 (2): 248–260. doi:10.3896/IBRA.1.53.2.06. S2CID 56261380. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
  51. Bear Country Bees. "American Foulbrood (AFB)". bearcountrybees.com. Archived from the original on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
  52. J. D. & B. D. Yates (2012). Beekeeping Study Notes for the BBKA Examination. Vol. 1. Mod. 1, 2 & 3 (2 ed.). Northern Bee Books. pp. 180–184. ISBN 978-0905652818.
  53. Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (Republic of Ireland). "List of Notifiable Diseases". agriculture.gov.ie. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
  54. Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (Northern Ireland) (5 May 2015). "Bee Health". daera-ni.gov.uk. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
  55. J. K. Watson (1981). Beekeeping in Ireland a History (1 ed.). Glendale. pp. 94–95, 135–137, 145. ISBN 978-0907606000.
  56. J. D. & B. D. Yates (2012). Beekeeping Study Notes for the BBKA Examination. Vol. 1. Mod. 1, 2 & 3 (2 ed.). Northern Bee Books. pp. 184–193. ISBN 978-0905652818.
  57. "Small Hive Beetle" (PDF). agriculture.gov.ie. Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
  58. "TROPILAELAPS spp. mites" (PDF). agriculture.gov.ie. Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
  59. Lauren Boland. "Single Asian hornet found 'alive but dying' in north Dublin home". thejournal.ie. The Journal. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  60. "ASIAN HORNET Vespa velutina Lepeletier" (PDF). biodiversityireland.ie. Department of Agriculture, Food and Marine. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  61. Celia F. Davis (2014). The Honey Bee Around and About (2nd ed.). Bee Craft Ltd. pp. 107–109. ISBN 978-0-900147-15-9.
  62. "Neonicotinoids: risks to bees confirmed". European Food Safety Authority. 28 February 2018. Retrieved 2 December 2018.
  63. Watson, James K. (1981). Bee-keeping in Ireland: A history. The Glendale Press. pp. vi, 30–43, 72–74, 271–276. ISBN 978-0907606000.
  64. Watson, James K. (1981). Bee-keeping in Ireland: A history. The Glendale Press. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0907606000.
  65. Watson, James K. (1981). Bee-keeping in Ireland: A history. The Glendale Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0907606000.
  66. Watson, James K. (1981). Bee-keeping in Ireland: A history. The Glendale Press. pp. 121–123, 126–129, 130. ISBN 978-0907606000.
  67. "Irish Beekeepers Association - Home Page". www.irishbeekeepersassociation.com. IBA. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  68. Watson, James K. (1981). Bee-keeping in Ireland: A history. The Glendale Press. pp. 30–43, 72–73, 171–175. ISBN 978-0907606000.
  69. FIBKA history
  70. Beekeeping Summer School
  71. "European Professional Beekeepers Association - Members". professional-beekeepers.eu. Professional Beekeepers. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  72. "Council of National Beekeeping Assoc.'s in the U.K. & Ireland - Members". conba.org. CONBA. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  73. "FIBKA Constitution Jan. 2016, point 3.6".
  74. "IBA Blog - Message from our Director". www.irishbeekeepersassociation.com. IBA. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  75. "Irish Beekeepers Association - Home Page". www.irishbeekeepersassociation.com. IBA. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  76. "IBA - Irish Associations". irishbeekeepers.ie. Irish Beekeepers’ Association. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
  77. "The National Heritage Plan". www.irishbeekeepersassociation.com. IBA. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
  78. GB Non-Native Species Secretariat. "What are invasive non-native species?". nonnativespecies.org. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  79. Department of Culture, Heritage and the Gaeltacht. "Population Recovery for key species in Ireland". chg.gov.ie. Retrieved 17 November 2020.
  80. "About Us – The Native Irish Honey Bee Society". Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  81. Conservation. NIHBS. https://nihbs.org/conservation/ Accessed 15.1.2022
  82. "The Native Irish Honey Bee Society - Aims & Objectives, 1 & 2". nihbs.org.
  83. Native Irish Honey Bee Society. Statement Against Importing Bees into Ireland https://nihbs.org/2021/03/04/statement-against-importing-bees-into-ireland/
  84. Micheál Mac Giolla Coda & Aoife Nic Giolla Coda. "Native Irish Black Bees". galteehoney.com. Galtee Honey Farm. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  85. "Native Irish Beekeeping - Native Irish Black Bees". connemarabeekeepers.ie. Connemara Beekeepers’ Association. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
  86. Oireachtas, Houses of the (28 September 2021). "Protection of the Native Irish Honey Bee Bill 2021 – No. 133 of 2021 – Houses of the Oireachtas". www.oireachtas.ie. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  87. (Private Member) Seanad Éireann. "Protection of the Native Irish Honey Bee Bill 2021 (Bill 133 of 2021)". oireachtas.ie. Oireachtas. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  88. (Private Member) Seanad Éireann. "An Bille um an mBeach Mheala Dhúchasach Éireannach a Chosaint, 2021 Protection of the Native Irish Honey Bee Bill 2021" (PDF). oireachtas.ie. The Stationery Office. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  89. "Gemeinschaft der europäischen Buckfastimker e.V." Community of European Buckfast beekeepers.
  90. "Honeybee Queens Pedigrees".
  91. "IBBA open letter".
  92. "Isolated mating - How, where and why it works". beekeeping.ie. The Irish Buckfast Beekeepers’ Association. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
  93. "UBKA - About". ubka.org. UBKA. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
  94. "UBKA - Local Associations". ubka.org. UBKA. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
  95. "UBKA - Training Beekeeping Courses". ubka.org. UBKA. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
  96. "Council of National Beekeeping Assoc.'s in the U.K. & Ireland - Members". conba.org. CONBA. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  97. "Institute of Northern Ireland Beekeepers - Home page". inibeekeepers.com. INIB. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
  98. "INIB - Membership". inibeekeepers.com. INIB. Retrieved 17 November 2018.
  99. "Irish Buckfast & Carniolan Beekeepers". facebook.com. Facebook. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
  100. "Irish Buckfast & Carniolan Beekeepers". galwaybeekeepers.com. Galway Beekeepers' Association. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
  101. Michael C. Giolla Coda. "Viruses and Queen Failure". nihbs.org. NIHBS. Retrieved 13 September 2021.
  102. Jonathan Getty. "Native Honey Bee Alive and Buzzing". nihbs.org. NIHBS. Retrieved 13 September 2021.
  103. Beowulf A. Cooper (1986). The Honeybees of the British Isles (1 ed.). BIBBA. p. 70. ISBN 0905369068.
  104. Emma Williams (Autumn 2013). "All-Ireland Morphometry Survey". The Four Seasons (51): 8–13.
  105. A.B. JENSEN, K.A. PALMER, J. J. BOOMSMA, B.V. PEDERSEN (2005). "Varying degrees of Apis mellifera ligustica introgression in protected populations of the black honeybee, Apis mellifera mellifera, in northwest Europe". Molecular Ecology. 14 (14): 93–106. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2004.02399.x. PMID 15643954. S2CID 25869521. Retrieved 18 November 2020.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  106. Keith Browne. "Wild Honey Bee Study". biodiversityireland.ie. National Biodiversity Data Centre. Retrieved 20 November 2020.
  107. Prof. Dr. Kaspar Bienefeld. "Sustainable Management of Resilient Bee populations - Final Project Report" (PDF). cordis.europa.eu. SMARTBEES. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
  108. J. Hassett; Native Irish Honey Bee Society; G. Soland; G. McCormack; E. Moore; K. Browne; M. Geary (2018). "A significant pure population of the dark European honey bee (Apis mellifera mellifera) remains in Ireland". Journal of Apicultural Research. 57 (3): 337–350. doi:10.1080/00218839.2018.1433949.
  109. Keith A. Brown (2021). "Investigation of free-living honey bee colonies in Ireland". Journal of Apicultural Research. 60 (2): 229–240. doi:10.1080/00218839.2020.1837530. hdl:10198/22390. S2CID 228837601. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
  110. Dr. Jack Hassett (2 October 2021). "Beara Peninsula Case Study". Ulster Beekeepers Association AGM 2021 Webinar.
  111. An Beachaire
  112. "Subscription page for our newsletter". Irish Beekeepers Association CLG Cumann Beachairí na hÉireann. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
  113. "Bee Craft Magazine". bee-craft.com. Bee Craft Ltd. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
  114. "Annual Subscription to BeeCraft Magazine". Irish Beekeepers Association CLG Cumann Beachairí na hÉireann. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
  115. "Four Seasons Magazine". nihbs.org. NIHBS. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
  116. BBKA News
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.