African American officeholders during and following the Reconstruction era

More than 1,500 African American officeholders served during the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877)[1] after passage of the Reconstruction Acts in 1867 and 1868 as well as in the years after Reconstruction before white supremacy, disenfranchisement, and the Democratic Party fully reasserted control in Southern states. Historian Canter Brown, Jr. noted that in some states, such as Florida, the highest number of African Americans were elected or appointed to offices after 1877 and the end of Reconstruction. The following is a partial list some of the most notable of the officeholders pre–1900.

First African American U.S. Senator Hiram Revels and U.S. Representatives (R-MS), Rep. Benjamin S. Turner (R-AL), Robert DeLarge (R-SC), Josiah Walls (R-FL), Jefferson Long (R-GA), Joseph Rainey and Robert B. Elliott (R-SC)

U.S. Senate

U.S. House
Main article: First generation of African-American House members, 1870–1893

Alabama

State Senate

1868 Legislature

From 1868 to 1878 more than 100 African Americans served in the Alabama Legislature.[2]

House

House

House
  • William E. Carson - Lowndes
  • Thomas J. Clarke - Barbour
  • Henry A. Cochran - Dallas
  • Mentor Dotson - Sumter
  • John Dozier - Perry
  • Hales Ellsworth - Montgomery
  • Samuel Fantroy - Barbour
  • Joseph H. Goldsby - Dallas
  • James K. Greene - Hale
  • R. L. Johnson - Dallas
  • Reuben Jones - Madison
  • Greene S. W. Lewis - Perry
  • Perry Mathews - Bullock
  • January Maull - Lowndes
  • Willis Merriwether - Wilcox
  • G. R. Millen - Russell
  • George Patterson - Macon
  • Samuel J. Patterson - Autauga
  • Robert Reed - Sumter
  • Bristo W. Reese - Hale
  • Lawrence S. Speed - Bullock
  • Henry St. Clair - Macon
  • Lawson Steele - Montgomery
  • William Taylor - Sumter
  • B. R. Thomas - Marengo
  • Frank H. Threatt - Marengo
  • J. R. Treadwell - Russell
  • Thomas H. Walker - Dallas
  • A. E. Williams - Barbour
  • L. J. Williams - Montgomery

House
  • G. W. Allen - Bullock
  • Elijah Baldwin - Wilcox
  • Granville Bennett - Sumter
  • William H. Blevins - Dallas
  • James Bliss - Sumter
  • Matthew Boyd - Perry
  • Hershel V. Cashin - Montgomery
  • Elijah Cook - Montgomery
  • D. J. Daniels - Russell
  • Charles Fagan - Montgomery
  • Adam Gachet - Barbour
  • Prince Gardner - Russell
  • William Gaskin _ Lowndes
  • Charles E. Harris - Dallas
  • A. W. Johnson - Macon
  • Samuel Lee - Lowndes
  • Greene S. W. Lewis - Perry
  • Edwin C. Locke - Wilcox
  • Jacob Martin - Dallas
  • Perry Matthews - Bullock
  • Willis Merriwether - Wilcox
  • Edward Odum - Barbour
  • George Patterson - Macon
  • Bristo W. Reese - Hale
  • Robert Reid - Sumter
  • Charles Smith - Bullock
  • A. E. Williams - Barbour
  • J. R. Witherspoon - Perry
  • Manly Wynne - Hale

House

House

Other

Arkansas

Between 1868 and 1893, 85 men noted as either "Colored" or "Mulatto" served in the state legislature (House and Senate) of Arkansas. They served under the 1868 Arkansas Constitution that granted them the right to vote and hold office and then the 1874 Constitution, instituted after Democrats retook control of state government. After 1893, the next African-American to serve as a state legislator in Arkansas was in 1973.[6][7]

Statewide officeholders
  • Joseph Carter Corbin, chief clerk of the Little Rock Post Office (1872), state superintendent of public schools (1873-1875)

1868 Arkansas Constitutional Convention
  • William Henry Grey, Arkansas Constitutional Convention (1868)
  • James T. White, Arkansas Constitutional Convention (1868), commissioner of public works and internal improvements (1872)

Arkansas Senate

Arkansas House

Local office

Colorado

House

Local offices

Florida

Senate

House

Local officials

Georgia

Senate

House

Illinois

House

Indiana

Indiana did not have any African American legislators during the Reconstruction era,[16] with James S. Hinton being the first African American to serve in the Indiana state legislature 1881–1882.

Kansas

Kansas did not have any African American legislators during the Reconstruction era,[16] with Alfred Fairfax being the first African American to serve in the Indiana state legislature 1888–1889.

Louisiana

In Louisiana, 24 African Americans served in the Louisiana Senate and more than 100 served in the Louisiana House of Representatives.[17]

In addition, six black men held statewide office in Louisiana, including the nation's first and second black acting governors.

Three African Americans served as Louisiana's lieutenant governor.

Others served as secretary of state, state treasurer, and state superintendent of education.

Senate

House

Local offices
  • Pierre Caliste Landry, mayor of Donaldsonville, the first African American mayor elected in the United States
  • Thomas Morris Chester, superintendent of school district (1875)
  • James Lewis, administrator of public improvements in New Orleans in 1872, appointed New Orleans naval officer in 1877
  • Pierre Magloire, Avoyelles Parish Sheriff, Louisiana (1872)
  • Alexander Noguez, Avoyelles Parish Sheriff, Louisiana (1868–1872)

Maryland

Local offices
  • William Butler, Member of the Annapolis Board of Aldermen (1873)
  • William H. Day, Baltimore Inspector of Schools, in 1878 he was elected to the school board of directors at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania

Massachusetts

House

Local offices

Michigan

House

local offices
  • Samuel C. Watson, State Board of Estimates, 1875; Detroit City Council, 1875, 1883-1886

Minnesota

Minnesota did not have any African American legislators during the Reconstruction era,[16] with John Francis Wheaton being the first African American to serve in the Minnesota state legislature as a representative 1899–1900.

Mississippi

The Mississippi Plan was part of an organized effort campaign of terror and violence the Democratic Party and Ku Klux Klan used to disenfranchise African Americans in Mississippi, block them from holding office, end Reconstruction, and restore white supremacy in the state.

U.S. Senate

Mississippi was the only U.S. state that elected African American candidates to the U.S. Senate during the Reconstruction Era:

Photo composite of Mississippi state legislators in 1874 by E. von Seutter

State Senate

State House

Other

Nebraska

Members of the Nebraska House of Representatives

Local offices

North Carolina

Ohio

Members of the Ohio Senate

Members of the Ohio House of Representatives

Local offices
  • Jeremiah A. Brown, Cleveland, bailiff of the county probate court, deputy sheriff and county prison turnkey, then clerk of the City Boards of Equalization and Revision.[29]
  • Robert James Harlan, mail agent

South Carolina
A composite image of 63 "Radical Republicans" in the South Carolina Legislature in 1868 including 50 "negroes or mullatoes"

Members of South Carolina Senate

Members of South Carolina House of Representatives
  • William Adamson representing Kershaw County from 1868 until 1870
  • Frank Adamson representing Kershaw County from 1870 until 1874
  • Jacob C. Allman representing Marion County from 1872 until 1876
  • Robert B. Artson representing Charleston County from 1872 until 1874
  • R. B. Anderson Georgetown County from 1890 to 1898
  • William J. Andrews Sumter County from 1874 to 1876
  • Samuel J. Bampfield Beaufort
  • George W. Barber Fairfield County from 1868 until 1872
  • John B. Bascomb representing Beaufort County
  • J. A. Baxter Georgetown County from 1884 to 1890
  • W. W. Beckett representing Berkeley Countyfrom 1882 to 1884
  • W. A. Bishop representing Greenville Countyfrom 1868 until 1870
  • J. W. Bolts Georgetown County from 1898 to 1900 also served from 1900 to 1902
  • Benjamin A. Bosemon representing Charleston County from 1868 until 1873
  • John Boston representing Darlington County
  • Joseph D. Boston representing Newberry County from 1868 until 1876
  • James A. Bowley representing Georgetown County from 1869 until 1874
  • E. M. Brayton Aiken
  • Sampson S. Bridges Newberry
  • Peter Bright Charleston
  • William Brodie Charleston
  • Stephen Brown Charleston
  • Richard Bryan Charleston
  • Benjamin Byos representing Berkeley County/Orangeburg County from 1870 until 1872
  • H. Z. Burchmeyer Charleston
  • Barney Burton Chester
  • Everidge Cain Abbeville
  • Edward J. Cain Orangeburg
  • Lawrence Cain Edgefield
  • Richard H. Cain Orangeburg
  • Christian Wesley Caldwell representing Orangeburg from 1876 to 1878
  • John A. Chestnut Kershaw
  • Caesar P. Chisolm Colleton
  • Simon P. Coker Barnwell
  • Wilson Cooke Greenville
  • Samuel Coleman Chester in 1875 and 1876
  • Augustus Collins Clarendon
  • Andrew W. Curtis Richland
  • Abram Dannerly representing Orangeburg County
  • Nelson Davies York County from 1873 to 1876
  • James Davis Richland
  • Thomas A. Davis representing Charleston County from 1870 until 1876
  • Robert C. DeLarge Charleston
  • Eugene Herriot Dibble Kershaw
  • John Dix Orangeburg
  • Samuel B. Doiley Charleston
  • Paul B. Drayton representing Charleston County from 1880 to 1882
  • William A. Driffle Colleton
  • Samuel L. Duncan Orangeburg County
  • S. C. Eckhard representing Charleston County from 1878 to 1880
  • W. T. Elfe Charleston
  • Robert B. Elliott representing Barnwell/Edgefield/Aiken
  • William E. Elliott Charleston
  • Henry H. Ellison Abbeville
  • John Evans Williamsburg
  • Philllip E. Ezekiel Beaufort
  • Simeon Farr Union
  • Simeon Farrow Union
  • T. R. Fields Beaufort
  • Adam P. Ford Charleston
  • Ellis Forrest Orangeburg
  • William H. Frazier Colleton
  • B. G. Frederick Orangeburg
  • John M. Freeman, Jr. Charleston
  • Florian Henry Frost Williamsburg
  • Reuben Gaither representing Kershaw County from 1870 until 1877
  • William H. Gardner Sumter
  • Stephen Gary representing Kershaw County from 1870-1872 and 1874-1876
  • Hastings Gantt Beaufort
  • John Gardner Edgefield
  • Ebenezer F. George Kershaw
  • John Gibson Fairfield
  • Fortune Giles representing Williamsburg County
  • John T. Gilmore Richland
  • William C. Glover Charleston
  • Mitchell Goggins Abbeville
  • Aesop Goodson Richland
  • David Graham Edgefield
  • John G. Grant Marlboro
  • William A. Grant Charleston
  • Charles S. Green Georgetown
  • John Green Edgefield
  • Samuel Greene representing Beaufort County from 1870 until 1875
  • Ishom Greenwood Newberry
  • Thomas Hamilton Beaufort
  • James J. Hardy representing Charleston County in 1870 and 1871
  • Alfred Hart Darlington
  • R. M. Harriett Georgetown
  • David Harris Edgefield
  • Eben Hayes representing Marion County
  • Charles D. Hayne Barnwell
  • James N. Hayne Barnwell
  • William A. Hayne Marion
  • Plato P. Hedges Charleston
  • John T. Henderson Newberry
  • James A. Henderson Newberry
  • Gloster H. Holland Aiken County
  • Abraham P. Holmes Colleton
  • A. H. Howard Marion
  • Allison W. Hough Kershaw
  • Richard H. Humbert Darlington
  • Barney Humphries Chester
  • Allen Hudson Lancaster
  • Alfred T. B. Hunter, state representative from Laurens County (1874 – 1876)
  • Austin Jackson Barnwell
  • Henry Jacobs Fairfield
  • Burrell James Sumter
  • James L. Jamison Orangeburg
  • Paul W. Jefferson Aiken
  • William R. Jervay Charleston
  • Griffin C. Johnson Laurens
  • John W. Johnson Marion
  • D. J. J. Johnson Chesterfield
  • Henry Johnson Fairfield
  • William E. Johnston representing Sumter County in 1868 and 1769
  • Samuel Johnson Charleston
  • Marshall Jones Orangeburg
  • A. H. Jones Charleston
  • Paul E. Jones Orangeburg
  • William H. Jones Georgetown
  • Samuel I. Keith Darlington
  • Jordan Lang Darlington
  • John Lee Chester
  • Levi Lee Fairfield
  • George H. Lee Charleston
  • Samuel J. Lee representing Edgefield County/Aiken County from 1868 until 1874
  • Joseph W. Lloyd Charleston
  • John Lilley Chester
  • Aaron Logan Charleston
  • Hutson J. Lomax representing Abbeville County
  • William Lowman Richland
  • William Maree Colleton
  • Thomas Martin Abbeville
  • Julius Mayer Barnwell
  • James P. Mays Orangeburg
  • Harry McDaniels Laurens
  • Thomas D. McDowell Georgetown
  • William J. McKinlay representing Orangeburg/Charleston
  • John W. Meade York
  • George M. Mears Charleston
  • Edward C. Mickey Charleston
  • Benjamin Middleton Barnwell
  • Isaac Miller Fairfield
  • M. Miller Fairfield
  • Thomas E. Miller Beaufort from 1874 until 1880
  • James Mills Laurens
  • L. S. Mills Beaufort
  • Syphax Milton Clarendon
  • Charles S. Minort Richland
  • F. S. Mitchell Beaufort
  • Junius S. Mobley Union
  • Alfred M. Moore Fairfield
  • Shadrack Morgan Orangeburg
  • William C. Morrison Beaufort
  • William J. Moultrie Georgetown
  • William F. Myers Colleton
  • Jonas W. Nash representing Kershaw County
  • William Nelson Clarendon
  • Richard Neabitt Charleston
  • Frederick Nix Jr. Barnwell
  • Charles F. North Charleston
  • Samuel Nuckles Union
  • Joseph Alexander Owens Barnwell County
  • Robert John Palmer Richland
  • Joseph Parker Charleston
  • Jeffrey Pendergrass Williamsburg
  • Wade Perrin Laurens
  • James F. Peterson Williamsburg County from 1872 to 1878
  • Edward Petty Charleston
  • William G. Pinckney Charleston
  • Thomas Pressley Williamsburg
  • Isaac Prioleau Charleston
  • Henry W. Purvis Lexington
  • Warren W. Ramsey representing Sumter County from 1869 until 1876
  • Alonzo J. Ransier Charleston
  • Cain Ravenel Berkeley
  • George A. Reed Beaufort
  • A. C. Reynolds Beaufort
  • J. C. Rice Beaufort
  • Thomas Richardson Colleton
  • Mark P. Richardson Berkeley
  • Henry Riley Orangeburg
  • Prince R. Rivers Edgefield/Aiken
  • J. R. Rivers Beaufort
  • Joseph Robinson Beaufort
  • J. C. Rue Beaufort
  • Alfred Rush Darlington
  • Thaddeus K. Sasportas Orangeburg
  • Sancho Saunders Chester
  • William C. Scott Williamsburg
  • Robert F. Scott Williamsburg
  • W. H. Sheppard Beaufort
  • Henry L. Shrewsburg Chesterfield
  • Augustus Simkins Edgefield
  • Paris Simpkins Edgefield
  • Hercules Simmons Colleton
  • Aaron Simmons Orangeburg
  • Benjamin Simmons Beaufort
  • Limus Simons Edgefield
  • William Simons Richland
  • Charles Sims Chester
  • Andrew Singleton Berkeley
  • James Singleton Berkeley
  • Asbury L. Singleton Sumter
  • J. P. Singleton Chesterfield
  • Robert Smalls Beaufort
  • Sherman Smalls Colleton
  • Rev. W. Smalls Charleston
  • James E. Smiling Sumter
  • Abraham W. Smith Charleston
  • Jackson A. Smith Darlington
  • Powell Smythe Clarendon
  • Butler Spears Sumter
  • James A. Spencer Abbeville
  • Nathaniel T. Spencer Charleston
  • Charles H. Sperry Georgetown
  • Henry Steele York
  • Caesar Sullivan Laurens
  • Robert Tarlton Colleton
  • John W. Thomas Marlboro
  • Benjamin A. Thompson Marion
  • Samuel B. Thompson Richland
  • Joseph Thompson Richland
  • William M. Thomas Colleton
  • Julius C. Tingman Charleston
  • Robert Turner representing Charleston County from 1872 until 1873
  • Richard M. Valentine representing Abbeville County in 1868
  • John Vanderpool Charleston
  • Thomas H. Wallace Berkeley
  • Dublin Walker Chester from 1874 until 1877
  • John Wallace Orangeburg
  • Jared D. Warley Clarendon
  • J. J. Washington Beaufort
  • Archie Weldon Edgefield
  • James Wells Richland
  • John W. Westberry Sumter
  • Ellison M. Weston Richland
  • William James Whipper Beaufort
  • John H. White
  • Hannibal A. Wideman Abbeville County
  • James Wigg Beaufort
  • Charles M. Wilder Richland
  • Bruce H. Williams Georgetown
  • James Clement Wilson Sumter
  • Zachariah W. Wines Darlington
  • John B. Wright Charleston York County
  • Smart Wright Charleston
  • Prince Young Chester
  • James M. Young Laurens

Local offices

Tennessee

Only one African American served in the Tennessee Legislature during the 1870s, but more than a dozen followed in the 1880s as Republican's retook the governorship. They advocated for schools for African Americans, spoke against segregated public facilities some of which were off limits completely to African Americams, and advocated for voting rights protections.[33]

Texas

Four African-Americans won election to the Texas Senate and 32 others served in the Texas House of Representatives during the Reconstruction era.[35]

Members of the Texas Senate

Members of the Texas House of Representatives

Virginia

The Virginia Senate enacted Joint Resolution No. 89 in 2012 recognising that although federal Reconstruction ended in 1877 due to Jim Crow laws Reconstruction in Virginia lasted from 1869 to 1890.[44]

Members of the Virginia Senate

Members of the Virginia House of Delegates

Virginia Constitutional Convention

Other offices
  • P. H. A. Braxton, constable in King William County in 1872, collector at the United States Custom House in Westmoreland County


Washington

Washington did not have any African American legislators during the Reconstruction era,[16] with William Owen Bush being the first African American to serve in the Washington state legislature 1889–1891.

West Virginia

West Virginia did not have any African American legislators during the Reconstruction era,[16] with Christopher Payne being the first African American to serve in the West Virginia state legislature 1896.

Wyoming

Wyoming did not have any African American legislators during the Reconstruction era,[16] with William Jefferson Hardin being the first African American to serve in the Wyoming state legislature 1879 - 1883.

Washington, D.C.
  • Solomon G. Brown, House of Delegates for Washington D.C. (1871-1874), employee at the Smithsonian[47]
  • John Mercer Langston, appointed member of the Board of Health of the District of Columbia
  • John H. Smythe, 1872, clerk in the U.S. Census Bureau, clerk in the Treasury department, 1878 ambassador to Liberia
  • William E. Matthews, clerk in the United States Postal Service in Washington D.C. in 1870, the first black person to receive an appointment in that department[48]
  • Josiah T. Settle, reading clerk of the Washington, D.C. House of Delegates (1872), clerk in the Board of Public Works, as an accountant in the Board of Audits, and as a trustee of the county schools for the district

See also

References
  1. "Reconstruction | Definition, Summary, Timeline & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica.
  2. "x-index :: Reconstruction :: Politics :: Lest We Forget". lestweforget.hamptonu.edu.
  3. https://archives.alabama.gov/afro/AfricanAmerican%20Legislators%20in%20Reconstruction%20Alabama1867.pdf
  4. "Black members of the Alabama Legislature who served during reconstruction - Alabama Historical Markers on Waymarking.com". www.waymarking.com.
  5. Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p390-393
  6. "A family legacy: Local woman recounts grandfather's public service following Reconstruction". texarkanagazette.com.
  7. "Black History Month 2021". Arkansas House of Representatives.
  8. "Carl H. Moneyhon". peace.saumag.edu.
  9. Dawson, R. (December 31, 1881). "1881 House of Representatives composite photo of the Twenty-Second General Assembly of the State of Arkansas". Arkansas General Assembly Composite Images, 1866-2011.
  10. "Arkansas Times - February 5, 2015". Issuu.
  11. Florida's Black Public Officials, 1867 - 1924 by Carter Brown Jr. University of Alabama Press (1998) page 71
  12. Florida's Black Public Officials by Canter Brown Jr. page 75
  13. Florida's Black Public Officials page 77
  14. Florida's Black Public Officials page 78
  15. Florida's Black Public Officials 1867 - 1924 by Canter Brown Jr., University of Alabama Press, 1998
  16. Foner, Eric (August 1, 1996). Freedom’s Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction. LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-2082-8. Retrieved April 22, 2022.
  17. Vincent, Charles (January 28, 2011). Black Legislators in Louisiana during Reconstruction. SIU Press. ISBN 9780809385812 – via Google Books.
  18. Edwards, Barrington S.., Weldon, Nick., Mitchell, Brian K.. Monumental: Oscar Dunn and His Radical Fight in Reconstruction Louisiana. United States: The Historic New Orleans Collection, 2021.
  19. Vincent, Charles (January 28, 2011). Black Legislators in Louisiana during Reconstruction. SIU Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-8581-2. Retrieved January 12, 2022.
  20. Obituary: Anthony Overton Sr." (Lawrence KS) Western Recorder, April 18, 1884, p.3
  21. Vincent, Charles (1976). "Louisiana's Black Legislators and Their Efforts to Pass a Blue Law During Reconstruction". Journal of Black Studies. 7 (1): 47–56. doi:10.1177/002193477600700104. JSTOR 2783730. S2CID 143949628 – via JSTOR.
  22. Work, Monroe N.; Staples, Thomas S.; Wallace, H. A.; Miller, Kelly; McKinlay, Whitefield; Lacy, Samuel E.; Smith, R. L.; McIlwaine, H. R. (1920). "Some Negro Members of Reconstruction Conventions and Legislatures and of Congress". The Journal of Negro History. 5 (1): 73. doi:10.2307/2713503. ISSN 0022-2992. JSTOR 2713503. S2CID 149610698.
  23. "Jeremiah M. P. Williams (Adams County) · Against All Odds: The First Black Legislators in Mississippi · Mississippi State University Libraries". msstate-exhibits.libraryhost.com.
  24. Freedom's Lawmakers page xlv
  25. Fletcher, ~ Adam F. C. (March 18, 2019). "A History of North Omaha's African American Legislators".
  26. Foner, Eric (August 1, 1996). Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction. LSU Press. ISBN 9780807120828.
  27. Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p422-425
  28. Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p133-143
  29. Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p113-117
  30. Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p327 – 335
  31. Eichelberger, Julia; Fick, Sarah. "14 Green Way - Built for an African American during Reconstruction, later served as a women's residence hall". Discovering Our Past: College of Charleston Histories. Retrieved March 6, 2020.
  32. 1870 York County Census, p. 77
  33. Cartwright, Joseph H. (1973). "Black Legislators in Tennessee in the 1800's: A Case Study in Black Political Leadership". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 32 (3): 265–284. JSTOR 42623393.
  34. "African American Legislators". tennsos.org.
  35. "Early African-American Senators | TSLAC". www.tsl.texas.gov.
  36. "Texas Legislators: Past & Present - Mobile". lrl.texas.gov.
  37. "Legislative Reference Library | Legislators and Leaders | Member profile". lrl.texas.gov.
  38. "Texas Legislators: Past & Present - Mobile". lrl.texas.gov.
  39. "TSHA | Washington, James H." www.tshaonline.org.
  40. "TSHA | Wilder, Allen W." www.tshaonline.org.
  41. "TSHA | Williams, Benjamin Franklin". www.tshaonline.org.
  42. "TSHA | Williams, Richard". www.tshaonline.org.
  43. "TSHA | Wyatt, George W." www.tshaonline.org.
  44. "Bill Tracking - 2012 session > Legislation". leg1.state.va.us. Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  45. "Alexander G. Lee (d. by October 10, 1901) – Encyclopedia Virginia". Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  46. "Fountain M. Perkins (1816 or 1817–1896) – Encyclopedia Virginia". Retrieved April 23, 2022.
  47. Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p291-295
  48. Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p246-251

Further reading
  • A Brief Biography of John Willis Menard from Southern University's John B. Cade Library
  • Bailey, Richard. Black Officeholders During the Reconstruction of Alabama, 1867-1878 (Pyramid Publishing) Available from author.
  • Bailey, Richard. Neither Carpetbaggers Nor Scalawags: Black Officeholders During the Reconstruction of Alabama, 1867-1878. Montgomery: Richard Bailey Publishers, 1995.
  • Canter Brown, Jr. Florida's Black Public Officials, 1867-1924. Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press, 1998.
  • Eric Foner ed., Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction Revised Edition. (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996). ISBN 0-8071-2082-0. Between 1865 and 1877, about two thousand blacks held elective and appointive offices in the South. A few are relatively well-known, but most have been obscure and omitted from official state histories. Foner profiles more than 1,500 black legislators, state officials, sheriffs, justices of the peace, and constables in this volume.
  • John Hope Franklin "John Roy Lynch: Republican Stalwart from Mississippi" in Howard Rabinowitz (ed.), Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era, (Urbana: 1982) and reprinted in John Hope Franklin, Race and History: Selected Essays, 1938-1988, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989
  • Mifflin Wistar Gibbs Shadow and Light: An Autobiography Autobiography with Reminiscences of the Last and Present Century, Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
  • Rabinowitz, Howard N. Southern Black Leaders of the Reconstruction Era (University of Illinois Press: 1982) Section on "Congressmen" includes profiles of "John R. Lynch: Republican Stalwart from Mississippi" by John Hope Franklin, "James T. Rapier of Alabama and the Noble Cause of Reconstruction" by Loren Schweninger, and "James O'Hara of North Carolina: Black Leadership and Local Government" by Eric Anderson.
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